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        <bibl><author>Robbins, Eliza (1786-1853)</author>, <title>Elements of Mythology, or, Classical Fables of the Greeks and the Romans : To Which Are Added, Some Notices of Syrian, Hindu, and Scandinavian Superstitions, Together with Those of the American Nations : The Whole Comparing Polytheism with True Religion.</title> For the Use of Schools, by the Author “American Popular Lessons”, <edition>twenty-first edition, improved</edition>, <pubPlace>Philadelphia</pubPlace>, <publisher>Moss, Brother &amp; Co.</publisher>, <date>1860</date>, <biblScope>279 p.</biblScope> Source : <ref target="https://books.google.fr/books?id=OE5EAQAAMAAJ">Internet</ref> <ref target="https://archive.org/details/elementsofmythol00robb">Archive</ref>.</bibl>
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      <div>
        <head>[Epigraph]</head>
        <quote>
          <p>”Thou shall have no other gods before me.”</p>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Anonyme"/></bibl>
            <note place="margin" resp="editor"><bibl>[<author key="Bible">Bible</author>]</bibl></note>
        </quote>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>[Dedication]</head>
        <p rend="center">TO MY LITTLE FRIENDS, <lb/>JANE SEDGWICK AND FRANCES BRYANT.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">In</hi> the hope that it may be useful, this book of <hi rend="sc">Mythology</hi> is affectionately offered to you, by your friend,</p>
        <signed>THE AUTHOR.</signed>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Preface.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">This</hi> book of Education is one of a series of simple and easy works for the use of schools. It may appear to have less of the character of <hi rend="i">utility</hi> than its predecessors; but the object of them all, humble and merely elementary as they are, is to raise the mind above mere utility, not only to employ the faculties of the young upon what is necessary to be known, but to elevate them to the love and enjoyment of the beautiful, in nature, in art, and in literature — to inspire a taste for the luxuries. and refinements of intellect — to make them understand prose, and take delight in poetry — to discipline the reason, and excite the imagination.</p>
        <p>I know that the stories of heathen gods and goddesses are somewhat out of date — that recent poetry derives its greatest power from sentiment, from delineations of the human heart, from external nature, and from genuine history. But we must preserve our old poetry, and its connexion with the fine arts, and with the fictions and superstitions of other ages and countries. We cannot comprehend our New Testament, nor multiplied allusions to classic authors, who, by their association with our own literature, have become necessary to be somewhat known by all readers; nor can we understand sculpture and painting, unless we know how all these are illustrated by fictions of pagan antiquity. Too many of these fictions are unfit to meet the eye of innocence, but so far as any of them convey a moral, so far as they throw light upon the history of mankind, so far as they have been incorporated in our literature, either with the design of instruction or of ornament, they require to make a part of useful education.</p>
        <p>Not to make a compend of this character too minute to be interesting, and too meager to entertain, is the most I have attempted in these Elements of Mythology, except that I have constantly endeavoured to suggest a comparison between true and false religions, and to make children feel and be grateful that “the glorious gospel of the blessed God” is a dispensation, of infinite wisdom and infinite mercy — that it is a marvelous light and a fountain of knowledge, as well as a guide to all virtue — that it dispels all phantoms from our life, and all darkness from our death — that it makes our worship a pure and simple service, our faith a clear conviction, and our devotionan undivided homage.</p>
        <p>I trust it is not a forced application to make a book of mythology one of a religious tendency. It is my own view of the subject, and I cannot but believe that the holiness and happiness of the Christian world will be rendered more evident by comparison with the times of that ignorance which God suffered long to exist — now happily succeeded and effaced by the certainty of revealed truth. By bringing fictions into contact with the facts, of religion, I hope I shall in no case impair the sentiment of reverence, and that Christian piety will lose nothing by the assumption that natural religion was an elementary principle of human feelings and opinions, amidst the self-deceptions and gross abuses which grow up, like stilling weeds with it, in the divers faith and ordinances of paganism.</p>
        <p>To cherish the love of truth, to contribute to the formation of a just taste in literature, to employ. the understanding <hi rend="i">principally</hi> in the acquirement of knowledge, to make reason the instructor of memory, and not memory the caterer of reason, is the purpose of all the little books I have written. To those who are employed in the education of the young, who think conscientiously and with interest upon the philosophy of instruction, and whose theory is the rule of their practice, I commend this book.</p>
        <dateline><hi rend="i">Philadelphia, October</hi> 22, 1830.</dateline>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Elements of Mythology</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Those</hi> young persons who live in the present age of the world, and who are educated as Christians, often hear of other gods besides that true and only God who is represented to them as the father of all intelligent beings, and the maker of every existing thing. They learn from this, that men have not all, and always, worshipped that pure and holy Spirit, who has been represented to them as the only proper object of trust and praise: and in reading the <title>Scriptures</title> they perceive, that God has forbidden the worship of images. They must naturally ask, what nations have worshipped idols, and why they have worshipped them.</p>
        <p>This question is answered by the fact, that when men first spread themselves over the habitable earth, they forgot and altered the revelation which God had made to Adam, Noah, and other patriarchs, and invented new and false gods, whom they adored. It pleased God to select one nation, to whom, in order to preserve the knowledge of himself in the world, he revealed himself in a particular manner.</p>
        <p>The fables connected with the false religions of antiquity are still carefully preserved. They constituted the religious faith of civilized nations; are often mentioned in ancient and modern history and poetry, and are often very amusing. Mythology, or the history of fable, is necessary to be known, because it explains many books, statues, and pictures, and enables us to comprehend the value of our own simple and true faith — the doctrines taught by Moses, the prophets, and the Lord Jesus Christ. The fables of Greece and Rome are the most interesting and the best known, therefore they must take the first place in the following compend of mythology, which is designed to bring into one view, for the use of young persons, some of the most remarkable fables, and best known usages, of ancient and modern paganism.</p>
        <ab type="ornament">———</ab>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Mythology</hi> is the history of the gods and goddesses who have been worshipped by heathen nations in different countries and ages of the world.</p>
        <p>Heathens, or pagans, are people who are not acquainted with the true and only God, and who worship false divinities. Heathens sometimes worship images of the deities whom they reverence. The worshippers of images are Idolaters, the images are Idols, and the worship is Idolatry.</p>
        <p>Men were first taught by God himself, that there is a God. Instruction directly from God is Revelation. We learn from the <title>Bible</title> that God <hi rend="i">manifested</hi>, or made himself known to some good men, and instructed them concerning the worship and conduct which he requires of human beings.</p>
        <p>The most remarkable individuals whom God appointed to instruct mankind concerning himself, were the Patriarchs, the Prophets, and lastly our Lord Jesus Christ. The <hi rend="i">patriarchs</hi> to whom God more especially revealed himself were Adam, Noah and Abraham. <hi rend="i">Patriarch</hi> signifies a father.</p>
        <p>As soon as Adam was created, God imparted to him the knowledge of himself and of the uses to which his gifts were to be applied. The first and second chapters of <title>Genesis</title> contain this fact. Adam was formed nearly six thousand years ago. Sixteen hundred years after Adam, God taught Noah his own character and will. Four hundred years after Noah, Abraham was also instructed how to serve God acceptably; and four hundred years after Abraham, and fifteen centuries before the birth of Christ, Moses, more fully than any of his predecessors, was instructed in the nature of a holy worship.</p>
        <p>After Moses, <hi rend="i">prophets</hi>, at different times taught mankind their duty to God. The prophets were persons instructed by God concerning himself, and concerning events which were to happen after they were foretold. Moses was a prophet when he foretold,
          <quote>“The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from the midst of thy brethren like unto me.”
          <author key="Bible"/></quote> This prophet was our Saviour Jesus Christ, who came into the world as Moses had predicted.</p>
        <p>Moses was succeeded by other prophets. Elisha, Isaiah, Jeremiah, etc. were prophets. The patriarchs, the prophets, and Christ taught that God is one — a spirit infinitely wise, powerful, holy, just, and merciful; and that he requires all human creatures to serve him in truth, that is, to confess or worship him before men; to love him with the whole heart: and to keep the commandments.</p>
        <p>Those persons to whom God revealed himself thus were all of one nation; they were the Hebrews, and dwelt on the eastern border of the Mediterranean, in Palestine, anciently Judea. The Hebrews are styled the <hi rend="i">chosen people</hi>, that means, they were chosen by God to be instructed in a true religion, and to teach it to the rest of mankind.</p>
        <p>The other nations of the world were partially taught the character of the Supreme Being by the Hebrews. All other nations believed in a <hi rend="i">plurality of gods</hi>, or many gods. This is Polytheism. The history of the fabulous divinities is Mythology.</p>
        <p>The good men who knew and loved the true God, endeavoured to make their <hi rend="i">contemporaries</hi>, persons living at the same time with themselves, love and serve him also; and many believed them, and <hi rend="i">walked with God</hi>, as the scripture says, which signifies, that they believed in God, and worshipped him only.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who are heathens?</p>
          <p>How did men first learn that there is a God?</p>
          <p>Who are the most remarkable persons to whom God bas revealed himself?</p>
          <p>At what different times were these revelations made?</p>
          <p>After the patriarchs, who at different times instructed mankind in true religion?</p>
          <p>Did the patriarchs and prophets teach one doctrine?</p>
          <p>To what nation did God particularly communicate himself?</p>
          <p>What was the religion of the rest of mankind?</p>
          <p>Were those that believed in the true God numerous?</p>
        </q>
        <ab type="ornament">———</ab>
        <p>As Noah, Abraham, and Moses, did not live at the same time, but several centuries passed away from the death of one till the lifetime of another of those holy men, there was time for men to forget the instructions of one, before they should hear the same truth from another, of those <hi rend="i">inspired</hi> persons.</p>
        <p>At the present time, whatever truth is discovered, is immediately printed in books: in civilized countries people are generally taught to read, and therefore a known fact is not likely to be lost or altered. When Noah and Abraham lived there were no letters or writings, and all knowledge was preserved by <hi rend="i">tradition</hi>.</p>
        <p><hi rend="i">Tradition</hi> is an account of past events related by the old to the young, and again related by the person who first heard it to others still younger than himself. When a father tells his son, <hi rend="i">My father</hi> told <hi rend="i">me</hi> that he planted yonder tree, I tell <hi rend="i">you</hi> that he did <hi rend="i">so</hi>; when you shall have a son, tell <hi rend="i">him</hi> that your grandfather planted that tree, and let <hi rend="i">your son</hi> tell <hi rend="i">his son</hi> this fact. The history of the tree becomes a <hi rend="i">tradition</hi> in that family.</p>
        <p>By tradition the knowledge of God was preserved n the world till the time of Moses; then the commandments were engraved on tables of stone, and God’s law could be read to the people. Long before this time, all that God had taught the patriarchs concerning himself had been altered or <hi rend="i">corrupted</hi>, as it was told from one person to another.</p>
        <p>Wicked men particularly described God, or <hi rend="i">the gods</hi>, as they called the Supreme Being,) to be as wicked as men had become themselves. They invented a god of <hi rend="i">wine</hi> for the drunkards, of <hi rend="i">gold</hi> for the covetous, and of <hi rend="i">dishonesty</hi> for the thieves, etc.</p>
        <p>Those who were not taught the true nature of God, worshipped the works of God, and also adored good men as divine beings. The sun, moon, and stars, the sea, the rivers, and the elements were worshipped, instead of him who made them all.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>How came men to forget the exact instructions of the patriarchs?</p>
          <p>How is truth certainly preserved at the present time?</p>
          <p>What is tradition?</p>
          <p>When was God’s will first recorded in writing?</p>
          <p>How did wicked men represent God?</p>
          <p>What besides the Supreme Deity became objects of worship?</p>
        </q>
        <ab type="ornament">———</ab>
        <p>The mythology of the Greeks and Romans is that which is now most important to be known. This mythology is introduced into all <hi rend="i">classical poetry. Classical poetry</hi> is that which is left of the poetry of the Greeks and Romans, and which is still read. English poets, and almost all modern poets of other countries, often allude to the ancient mythology.</p>
        <p>Painters have drawn beautiful pictures of the gods and goddesses, and sculptors have represented them in admirable forms. It is impossible to understand ancient and modern poetry, or to comprehend the beauty and propriety of the finest works of art, without some acquaintance with the history of ancient fables.</p>
        <p>The Greeks were first civilized by colonies of Phœnicians and Egyptians, and it is probable that the religion of the Greeks was a mixture of Phœnician and Egyptian faith and worship.</p>
        <p>The pagan deities of Greece were divided into classes: the Celestial, the Terrestrial, the Marine, and the Infernal Gods. The gods of heaven, of earth, of the sea, and of hell. The principal of the <hi rend="i">celestial</hi> gods was Jupiter — the supreme divinity of paganism, the father of gods and men.</p>
        <p>Besides Jupiter, five gods and six goddesses were of the higher order of deities, namely, Neptune, Apollo, Mercury, Mars, and Vulcan. The six goddesses were Juno, Minerva, Ceres, Venus, Dian, and Vesta.</p>
        <p>Besides the gods there were demi-gods. These were originally men who had performed great actions, and whom, after their death, men worshipped.</p>
        <p><hi rend="i">Personifications of certain ideas</hi> were deified by the ancients; as Courage and Pain, Prudence and Honour. Courage is a quality of the mind, it is the absence of fear, and a virtue. A picture of courage would be a figure of a bold man; this picture would make a <hi rend="i">person</hi> of a <hi rend="i">virtue</hi>; it would be a <hi rend="i">personification</hi>. The Greeks and Romans worshipped these personifications.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>What mythology is most important to be known?</p>
          <p>What is classical poetry?</p>
          <p>Who besides poets have celebrated pagan deities?</p>
          <p>Whence did the Greeks derive their religion?</p>
          <p>How are the heathen gods classed?</p>
          <p>Who are the chief gods and goddesses?</p>
          <p>Who are demi-gods?</p>
          <p>What is a personification?</p>
        </q>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_016.png"/>
        </figure>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Saturn.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">The</hi> most ancient divinities of the Greeks were Heaven and Earth; the former was a god called Cœlus, and the latter a goddess named Terra. Cœlus and Terra were the parents of Titan and Saturn. Titan, the elder son, gave up to his brother Saturn, his right to reign over the dominions of his parents, that is over heaven and earth.</p>
        <p>Saturn, the same as Chronos, signifies Time. Saturn, when he took the kingdom of the world, agreed always to devour his male children; as the Hours and Days, portions of time, cease to be as soon as they exist. But according to the fiction, Rhea or Cybele, the wife of Saturn, concealed one of her sons, and had him secretly educated. This son was Jupiter. Neptune and Pluto, two other of Saturn’s sons, were saved.</p>
        <p>When Titan discovered that one of his brother’s sons, contrary to a promise which Saturn had made him, was permitted to live, he made war upon Saturn; conquered both him and Cybele, and confined them. They were released by their son Jupiter, who deposed Saturn, and afterwards ruled the universe instead of his father.</p>
        <p>Saturn, upon the usurpation of Jupiter, took refuge in Italy. He was kindly received by Janus, the king of the country. Saturn, in gratitude for the hospitality of Janus, endowed that prince with extraordinary prudence, with a knowledge of future events, and a perpetual remembrance of the past.</p>
        <p>That part of Italy where Saturn took refuge, was called Latium, and lies along the Mediterranean. One of its ancient kings was Latinus. The language spoken in this region, and afterwards in Rome itself, was the Latin.</p>
        <p>Saturn was highly honoured in Latium, and became king of the country. The hill, afterwards called the Capitoline, was named Saturninus from Saturn, and from him all Italy has been sometimes styled Saturnia. Saturn taught his subjects agriculture, and other useful arts, and made them so happy that the time of his reign was called the Golden Age. Saturn is represented as an old man, with a scythe in his hand.</p>
        <p>At Rome, a festival was annually celebrated in honour of Saturn. At first, this festival, called the Saturnalia, lasted but one day; its duration was afterwards extended to three, four, and five days in succession. During the Saturnalia, business was suspended at Rome, schools were shut up, and unbounded hilarity prevailed. The slaves were released from toil, and permitted to say and do what they pleased, even, it is said, to ridicule their masters.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who were the parents of Saturn?</p>
          <p>Who was Saturn’s brother?</p>
          <p>What does Saturn signify?</p>
          <p>Who were Saturn’s sons?</p>
          <p>Who deposed Saturn?</p>
          <p>Where did Saturn take refuge?</p>
          <p>Where is Latium?</p>
          <p>How was Saturn regarded in Latium?</p>
          <p>How is Saturn represented?</p>
          <p>What was the Saturnalia?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Cybele.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 16.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Rhea</hi>, or <hi rend="sc">Cybele</hi>, the wife of Saturn, is sometimes called Ops, and sometimes Berecynthia. Cybele was regarded as the mother of the gods, and was thence called <hi rend="i">Magna Mater</hi> — the Great Mother. Cybele was the first who fortified the walls of cities with towers, and she is therefore represented with a crown of towers upon her head, and seated in a car drawn by lions.</p>
        <p>The priests of Cybele were sometimes called Corybantes, they are usually represented dancing and striking themselves.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Cybele, and how is she represented?</p>
          <p>Who were the priests of Cybele?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Vesta.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Vesta</hi> was the daughter of Saturn and the goddess of fire. Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, raised an altar to her, and instituted those celebrated priestesses who bore the names of Vestals, or Vestal Virgins.</p>
        <p>At first, the vestals were only four in number, but were, afterwards, increased to seven.</p>
        <p>Roman virgins, from the first families at Rome, and destined for the service of Vesta, were chosen between the age of six and ten years. The time of their consecration to the goddess lasted thirty years, and it was not till after this term that they were free from their priesthood, and at liberty to marry. During the first ten years they were instructed in the duties of their profession, they practised them during the second ten, and in the last ten years, they instructed the novices.</p>
        <p>The chief employment of the vestals consisted in constantly maintaining the sacred fire, which burned in honour of Vesta.</p>
        <p>This fire was renewed by the rays of the sun yearly, during the calends of March, or latter part of February.</p>
        <p>The preservation of this fire was considered as being so important, that when it happened to expire, all public spectacles were forbidden till the crime was punished.</p>
        <p>This event was the subject of general mourning, and considered as a most direful presage. If either of the vestal virgins had neglected her duty, or violated her vows, nothing could save her from the dreadful death of being buried alive.</p>
        <p>The temple of Vesta was said to contain, besides the consecrated fire, the Palladium, or sacred image of Minerva, and the images of Lares and Penates, or household gods, which Æneas saved from the destruction of Troy, and brought to Italy.</p>
        <p>The vestal’s vow was, never to suffer the sacred fire to become extinct, and never to associate with any man.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Vesta?</p>
          <p>Who were the vestals, and what was their discipline?</p>
          <p>Was the fire of Vesta’s temple sacred?</p>
          <p>To what punishment were the vestals exposed?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Janus.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Janus</hi> was a king of Italy, who received Saturn when he was expelled from heaven by Jupiter. The true history of Saturn must be, that he was a wise man, who was driven from some little kingdom by a successful usurper, who was perhaps his son; and, as a fugitive prince, escaping from injustice, was hospitably received by Janus.</p>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_021.png"/>
        </figure>
        <p>The people of Italy were probably, at that remote period, less instructed in the useful arts and the comforts of life, than the inhabitants of Crete, over which the usurper Jupiter acquired dominion. Janus was a patriotic king, one who wished to make his subjects wiser and better, and who devoted himself to improving them; therefore, he gladly admitted Saturn to a share of the government, and acquired useful knowledge from him.</p>
        <p>Janus, from his wisdom, was regarded as a prophet, and was supposed to be as well acquainted with the <hi rend="i">future</hi> as the <hi rend="i">past</hi>. This double gift of <hi rend="i">looking before and after</hi>, was nothing more than the <hi rend="i">experience</hi> and <hi rend="i">foresight</hi> of a wise man; nevertheless, ignorant people supposed that he was a <hi rend="i">supernatural</hi> being, and therefore, after his death he was deified.</p>
        <p>It is probable, that Janus regulated the divisions of time among his subjects, as the first month of the year was called in honour of him, January. In some of his temples, the statue of Janus was surrounded by twelve altars, which denoted the twelve months of the year.</p>
        <p>Janus was worshipped at Rome as the god of the year, as the patron of new undertakings, and the arbiter of peace and war. He was represented with two faces. These two faces indicated the <hi rend="i">double reign</hi> of Saturn and Janus; the double knowledge of the <hi rend="i">past</hi> and <hi rend="i">future</hi>; the <hi rend="i">double attribute</hi> of <hi rend="i">peace-maker</hi> and <hi rend="i">war-maker</hi>. He was supposed to open and shut the gates of heaven.</p>
        <p>The images of Janus had in one hand a key, to denote his power in heaven, and in the other hand a sceptre to express his authority upon earth. The Roman king Numa instituted a festival in honour of Janus, which was celebrated at Rome on the first day of the year.</p>
        <p>On the first day of the year, the Consuls entered upon their office, and the people were entertained with <hi rend="i">spectacles</hi>. New enterprises were dated from this day, but they commenced after it: for on the day itself, business was suspended, quarrels were forgotten, mutual presents were made, and the time was spent in mirth and friendly intercourse. This agreeable mode of spending the <hi rend="i">New-year’s</hi> day has been much followed by Christian nations even to the present time.</p>
        <p>The temples of Janus were shut at Rome during the time of peace; but these occasions were rare. First, in the long reign of Numa; secondly, at the conclusion of the second Punic war, B. C. 232; and three times by the emperor Augustus. During the last time our Saviour was born in Judea, then a Roman province.</p>
        <p>The circumstances of our Lord’s birth, himself the subject of an earthly empire, and the founder of a moral kingdom which shall extend to the end of the world — his coming into the world, the prince of peace, while mankind enjoyed a memorable peace, has often been noticed as a remarkable occurrence.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Janus, and what is the meaning of the fable of Saturn?</p>
          <p>Why did Janus admit Saturn to be the partner of his throne?</p>
          <p>How was Janus regarded by his subjects?</p>
          <p>Why were the images of Janus sometimes surrounded twelve altars?</p>
          <p>How was Janus worshipped at Rome?</p>
          <p>How were the attributes of Janus expressed by images of him, and who instituted a festival in honour of him?</p>
          <p>How did the Romans celebrate New-year’s day?</p>
          <p>When was the temple of Janus shut?</p>
          <p>What has been particularly noticed concerning the birth of Christ?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Jupiter.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 21.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Jupiter</hi> was the supreme god of the heathens, the governor of heaven and earth, the father of gods and men, the lord of the elements, and the dispenser of every blessing to mankind. His names were Optimus Maximus, or the Best and Greatest; Jove, king of gods and men; the Thunderer, as master of thunder and lightning.</p>
        <p>When Jupiter deposed his father Saturn, he divided the empire of the universe among himself, as king of heaven and earth, Neptune, the lord of the ocean, and Pluto, the ruler of the infernal regions. He is said to have been educated in the island of Crete.</p>
        <p>Very solemn worship was paid to Jupiter. The animals offered to him in sacrifice, were sheep, goats, and bulls with gilded horns. Flour, salt, and incense were used in these sacrifices. The oak and the olive were sacred to Jove.</p>
        <p>Jupiter is represented under the figure of a majestic man, with a venerable beard, seated on a throne. In his right hand he held a thunderbolt, and in his left, a sceptre of cypress wood. The Titans are beneath his feet, and an eagle by his side. The sceptre is the symbol of his majesty.</p>
        <p>The ancients represented this god as having a face of great dignity and beauty. His head wag surrounded with rays and clouds. Beside him were placed two urns, one of <hi rend="i">good</hi>, the other of <hi rend="i">evil</hi>. From these he distributed benefits or afflictions to mankind.</p>
        <p>Terror is one of Jove’s principal attributes. Homer describes him thus:</p>
        <quote>
          <l>He whose all-conscious eyes the world behold,</l>
          <l>The eternal Thunderer, sits enthroned in gold.</l>
          <l>High heaven the footstool of his feet he makes,</l>
          <l>And, wide beneath him, all <hi rend="i">Olympus</hi> shakes,</l>
          <l>He speaks, and awful bends his sable brows,</l>
          <l>Shakes his ambrosial curls and gives the <hi rend="i">nod</hi> —</l>
          <l>The <hi rend="i">stamp of fate</hi>, and sanction of a god;</l>
          <l>High heaven, with trembling, the dread signal takes,</l>
          <l>And all Olympus to the centre shakes.</l>
          <bibl><title>Iliad</title>,
            <author key="Homère"/>
            <author role="translator" key="Pope">Pope</author>'s translation.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>Jove’s peculiar habitation, and that of the other celestial gods, was supposed to be Olympus, a mountain of Greece; though
          <author key="Dr. Clarke">Dr. Clarke</author>, a very learned man, supposes Olympus to be a name common to high mountains in the ancient world. <hi rend="i">Fate</hi> signifies a fixed purpose of the gods, — a determination of the divine mind which could not be altered. When Jove <hi rend="i">nodded</hi>, or inclined his head, that motion expressed his unalterable will.</p>
        <p>Jupiter, in <hi rend="i">Homer</hi>, answers a petitioner thus:</p>
        <quote>
          <l>Depart in peace, secure thy prayer is sped,</l>
          <l>Witness the sacred honours of our head;</l>
          <l>The nod that ratifies the will divine;</l>
          <l>The faithful, fixed, irrevocable, sign;</l>
          <l>This seals thy suit, and this fulfils thy vows.</l>
          <l>— He spoke, and awful bends his sable brows,</l>
          <l>Shakes his ambrosial curls, and gives the <hi rend="i">nod</hi>, —</l>
          <l>The stamp of fate, and sanction of the God:</l>
          <l>High heaven, with trembling, the dread signal took,</l>
          <l>And all Olympus to the centre shook.</l>
          <bibl><title>Iliad</title>, Book 1.
            <author key="Homère"/></bibl>
            <note place="margin" resp="editor"><bibl>[<author key="Pope" role="translator">Pope</author>]</bibl></note>
        </quote>
        <p> Virgil, the Roman poet, represents Jove’s power over nature, with great efiect, thus;</p>
        <quote>
          <l>Great Jove himself, whom dreadful darkness shrouds,</l>
          <l>Pavilioned in the thickness of the clouds.</l>
          <l>With lightning armed, his red right hand puts forth,</l>
          <l>And shakes with burning bolts, the solid earth;</l>
          <l>The nations shrink appelled; the beasts are fled;</l>
          <l>All human hearts are sunk and pierced with dread;</l>
          <l>He strikes <hi rend="i">vast Rhodope’s</hi> exalted crown,</l>
          <l>And hurls <hi rend="i">huge Athos</hi> and <hi rend="i">Cerannia</hi> down.</l>
          <l>Thick fall the rains; the wind redoubled roars:</l>
          <l>The god now smit’^s the woods and now the sounding shores.</l>
          <bibl><title>Æneid</title>,
            <author key="Virgile"/>
            <author role="translator" key="Pitt">Pitt</author>'s translation.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>Rhodope was a mountain of Thrace, Athos of Upper Greece, and the Acroceraunian ridge may be seen in modern Turkey, north of Macedonia.</p>
        <p>Just, wise, and powerful as Jove was represented by the heathens, he had not the infinite purity of the true God, for his worshippers, in their blindness, admitted many vices in his character, and related concerning him many scandalous adventures.</p>
        <p>Jupiter’s enemies were the Titans and the giants: the former were the sons of his uncle Titan, who imprisoned Saturn; and the latter were sons of Terra or Earth, who attempted to dethrone Jupiter. The giants, in their invasion, that they might scale the heavens, are said to have piled mount Pelion upon Ossa. Jupiter defeated them all.</p>
        <p>Jupiter had several oracles; that of Dodona, in Epirus, and that of Jupiter-Ammon in Lybia were the chief.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>What are Jupiter’s attributes?</p>
          <p>How did Jupiter divide the universe?</p>
          <p>What worship was paid to Jupiter?</p>
          <p>How is Jupiter represented?</p>
          <p>How does Homer describe the terrors of Jupiter?</p>
          <p>Where was Jove’s peculiar habitation supposed to be?</p>
          <p>How does Virgil describe Jove?</p>
          <p>Was the character of Jupiter perfectly holy?</p>
          <p>Who were Jupiter’s enemies?</p>
        </q>
        <ab type="ornament">———</ab>
        <p>The ancients supposed that Jupiter often love J mortal ladies; however, he did not appear to them in his own awful character, but assumed the shape of some man, or animal. One of these ladies, Semele, the daughter of Cadmus king of Thebes, entreated the god to appear to her as he did to Juno. Jupiter had sworn by the Styx to grant her whatever she should ask, so he was forced to keep his word, and he entered her apartment in the terrible majesty of the thunderer, surrounded by clouds and lightning. The celestial fire caused the instant death or Semele.</p>
        <p>To Leda, he appeared as a swan. This lady was the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta; she was the mother of four children celebrated in poetic history. Helen and Clytemnestra, Castor and Pollux. Helen was the beautiful wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and Clytemnestra was married to Agamemnon, king of Mycenæ, who was brother to Menelaus.</p>
        <p>One of the most remarkable adventures of Jupiter was the rape of Europa. <hi rend="i">Rape</hi> means bearing off in haste. Europa was a beautiful virgin, the daughter of Agenor, king of Phenicia. Jupiter saw her in the meadows, surrounded with her maids, diverting herself with gathering flowers. To gain the attention of Europa, Jupiter assumed the form of a white bull, and mingled with the herds of Agenor.</p>
        <p>Europa admired the beauty of the animal, approached and began to play with him as with a great but gentle dog; when he lay down at her feet she sprang upon his back. This was what the wily god desired, and he immediately withdrew himself slowly to the shore of the Mediterranean, plunged into the sea and swam off with his lovely burden to Crete. Crete is a European island, or nearer to Europe than to Asia or Africa. Europa afterwards married the king of Crete, and her name was given to one quarter of the world.</p>
        <p>The following is a fine description in verse of the flight of Europa. The poet supposes that Cupid and sea-gods, admiring her beauty, accompany her as she is borne over the waves.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>Now lows a milk-white bull on Asia’s strand</l>
          <l>And crops with dancing head the daisied land.</l>
          <l>With rosy wreaths, Europa’s hand adorns</l>
          <l>His fringed forehead and his pearly horns,</l>
          <l>Light on his back the sportive damsel bounds,</l>
          <l>And pleased he moves along the flowery grounds;</l>
          <l>Bears with slow steps his beauteous prize aloof;</l>
          <l>Dips in the lucid flood his ivory hoof;</l>
          <l>Then wets his velvet knees, and wading laves</l>
          <l>His silky sides amid the dimpling waves.</l>
          <l>Beneath her robe she draws her snowy feet,</l>
          <l>And half-reclining on her ermine seat,</l>
          <l>Around his raised neck her radiant arms she throws^</l>
          <l>And rests her fair cheek on his curled brows;</l>
          <l>Her yellow tresses wave on wanton gales,</l>
          <l>And bent in air her azure mantle sails.</l>
          <l>While her fair train with beckoning hands deplore,</l>
          <l>Strain their blue eyes, and shriek along the shore;</l>
          <l>Onward he moves; applauding Cupids guide.</l>
          <l>And skim on shooting wing the shining tide;</l>
          <l>Emerging Tritons leave their coral caves,</l>
          <l>Sound their loud conchs, and smooth the circling waves,</l>
          <l>Now Europe’s shadowy shores, with loud acclaim.</l>
          <l>Hail the fair fugitive and <hi rend="i">shout her name</hi>.</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Darwin E.">Darwin</author>'s<title rend="i"> Botanic Garden</title>, Canto II.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p><hi rend="i">Capitoline Jupiter.</hi> — A statue which adorned the temple of Jupiter at Rome. The finest Jupiter in existence is one in the Vesospi palace at Rome. On a medal struck in the time of the emperor Vitellius, is an impression like the famous statue of the capitol.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Did the ancients suppose that Jupiter loved human females, and what is related of his appearance to Semele?</p>
          <p>How did Jupiter appear to Leda?</p>
          <p>How did Jupiter deceive Europa?</p>
          <p>Was Europa easily allured to trust herself to the god in his assumed form?</p>
          <p>Who has given a fine description of the flight of Europa and what is it?</p>
          <p>What is the most famous statue of Jupiter at present hi existence?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Apollo.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Apollo</hi> was the son of Jupiter and Latona. He has been called “the god of life, and light, and arts” He was the cause of disease, and the restorer of health. He is often called Phœbus the god of day; and was supposed to be the patron of poetry, music, and the fine arts. Apollo was perfectly beautiful. He taught the arts of divination and <hi rend="i">archery</hi>, or the management of the bow and arrow. In hymns addressed to Apollo as the god of health, he is called Pæan.</p>
        <p>Apollo is sometimes represented with rays around his head, to show that he was the dispenser of light, and is often mentioned as the sun himself. We sometimes hear of Sol. Sol appears to have been a name for the sun, distinct from Apollo. Apollo frequently appears with a lyre in his hand. He is sometimes drawn in a car, commonly called the chariot of the sun. Apollo’s chariot was drawn by horses which no hand but his own could control.</p>
        <p>Many absurd and immoral actions are imputed to Apollo, as well as to other of the heathen deities.</p>
        <p>Apollo had a son named Esculapius. Esculapius was the best physician of antiquitv; he prolonged the lives of so many mortals, that Pluto complained to Jupiter that Esculapius prevented his dominions from being peopled, therefore Jupiter struck Esculapius with lightning and killed him.</p>
        <p>Apollo, enraged by the death of Esculapius, destroyed the Cyclops, huge one-eyed giants who had forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter. The Cyclops were servants and favourites of Jupiter, so he was angry at Apollo for destroying them, and expelled him from heaven as a punishment.</p>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_031.png"/>
        </figure>
        <p>When Apollo dwelt upon earth, he employed himself in tending the flocks of Admetus, king of Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo so kindly that the god promised, whenever the former should be summoned from the world by death, that his life should be spared, provided he could find another person who would die in his place. A mortal disease afterwards seized Admetus, and his wife, Alceste, offered herself to die instead of her husband. This act of generous devotion has often been commended.</p>
        <p>It is asserted by the poets that Apollo raised the walls of Troy by the music of his harp; and that a stone upon which he laid his lyre became so melodious, that whenever it was struck, it sounded like that instrument. Having unfortunately killed a very beautiful boy, called Hyacinthus, by the blow of a quoit, Apollo caused to spring up from his blood, the flower called after his name.</p>
        <p>Among the stories which relate to Apollo, is that of Phaeton. Phaeton was the son of Apollo and the nymph Clymene. Epaphus, a son of Jupiter, one day told Phaeton that Apollo was not his father. The youth, distressed at this, repaired to the god, and complained of Epaphus. Apollo consoled him, and to comfort him, promised that he would bestow upon him any gift he should ask. Phaeton petitioned to be allowed to drive the chariot of the sun for one day. Apollo in vain assured him that he could not govern the horses; but Phaeton, notwithstanding, persevered in demanding of his father to grant his request.</p>
        <p>To keep his word, Apollo intrusted his chariot to Phaeton; but the latter, unskilled in the management of the celestial coursers, suffered them to run wild, and they would have set the world on fire, had not Jupiter struck Phaeton into the Po, where he was drowned. His sisters, the Heliades, mourned for him and were metamorphosed into poplars by Jupiter. This story is told by
          <author key="Ovide">Ovid</author>, the Roman poet.</p>
        <p>Apollo’s most famous achievement was the destruction of the serpent Python. This serpent was probably only a pestilential disease which he cured. The Greeks, at their festivals, used to exhibit the destruction of the Python. A priestess of Apollo was called the Pythia in honour of the god’s achievement.</p>
        <p>The laurel was sacred to Apollo. It was bestowed upon poets as a reward for their excellence.</p>
        <p>The most famous <hi rend="i">oracle</hi> of the Greeks was that of Apollo at Delphi, in Phocis. An oracle signifies a truth from God. The Greeks supposed that Apollo instructed the Pythia in what he wished mortals to do; and all who could, repaired to the temple of Apollo to inquire at the oracle whether it Was best or not to commence any undertaking.</p>
        <p>The Pythia was a poor old woman who was intoxicated or disturbed in mind by the respiration of vapours from the ground, and her cries were pretended to express the will of the god. The priests made the Pythia sit in the temple of Apollo upon a <hi rend="i">tripod</hi>, or three-legged stool, and then they explained her frantic words to those who consulted the oracle.</p>
        <p>There scarcely exists in any country a museum or gallery of the fine arts, which does not contain one or more statues of Apollo. Of these, that which is universally preferred is the Apollo which adorns the Vatican palace at Rome. Casts of this statue may be seen in almost every considerable town in the United States. It is commonly called the <hi rend="i">Apollo of Belvidere</hi>. Belvidere is the name of a court of the palace, which commands a very fine prospect.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Apollo?</p>
          <p>How is Apollo represented?</p>
          <p>Are immoral actions imputed to Apollo?</p>
          <p>Why did Jupiter expel Apollo from heaven?</p>
          <p>With whom did Apollo dwell while he was on earth?</p>
          <p>Did Apollo love Hyacinthus?</p>
          <p>What rash promise did Apollo make to Phaeton?</p>
          <p>What happened to Phaeton?</p>
          <p>What were Apollo’s achievements?</p>
          <p>Where was the most famous oracle of Apollo?</p>
          <p>Who was the Pythia?</p>
          <p>What is the most admired statue of Apollo?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Mercury.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 31.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>           The God who mounts the winged winds,</l>
          <l>Fast to his feet the golden pinions binds,</l>
          <l>That high through fields of air his flight sustain,</l>
          <l>O’er the wide earth, and o’er the boundless main.</l>
          <l>He grasps the wand that causes sleep to fly,</l>
          <l>Or in soft slumbers seals the wakeful eye;</l>
          <l>Then shoots from heaven to high Pieria’s steep,</l>
          <l>And stoops incumbent on the rolling deep.</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Homère">Homer</author>'s <title rend="i">Odyssey</title>. —
            <author role="translator" key="Pope">Pope</author>. </bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>The Greek Mercury was the son of Jupiter and Maia. He was the god of eloquence, of arts and sciences, and the messenger of Jupiter. He was the inventor of weights and measures, and conducted departed souls to the world of spirits.</p>
        <p>Mercury is represented as a young man; wings were fastened to his sandals and to his cap, and in his hand he held the <hi rend="i">caduceus</hi>. This was a wand entwined with two serpents. The caduceus had a power to induce wakefulness, or to cause sleep. Mercury, besides his higher offices, was the god of thieves, of merchants, and of highways. Statues of Mercury were often placed in roads to point out the way to travellers.</p>
        <p>The mythologists say that Mercury was born at Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, and that in his infancy he was intrusted to the care of the Seasons. His cunning and dexterity in stealing were remarkable. He stole the quiver and arrow of Apollo, and robbed Neptune of his trident, Venus of her girdle. Mars of his sword, and Vulcan of his anvil.</p>
        <p>The cunning and address of Mercury recommended him to those gods, and Jupiter chose him for his special messenger. The king of heaven presented to him his winged cap called the <hi rend="i">petasus</hi>, and with wings for his feet called <hi rend="i">talaria</hi>. He had also a small sword which could render him invisible, which he lent to Perseus.</p>
        <p>Mercury is supposed to have been the Hermes of the Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are considered as the original inventors of the arts, science, and religion of Greece; though the arts and sciences flourishing at a later period in Greece, and deriving improvement from successive races of men, seem to have been brought to much higher utility and beauty by them than by any other people.</p>
        <p>The Hermes of Egypt was probably some philosopher, who was distinguished by various knowledge and inventive talent. The Egyptians impute to Hermes the invention of commerce, of geometry, of astronomy, and of hieroglyphic characters.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was the Greek Mercury?</p>
          <p>How was Mercury represented? Where was Mercury born?</p>
          <p>What were his gifts?</p>
          <p>Who was the Hermes of Egypt?</p>
          <p>What inventions do the Egyptians impute to Hermes?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Mars.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Mars</hi> was the god of war. He was commonly depicted by his worshippers as a warrior completely armed, and attended by Bellona, his sister, a goddess, fierce as himself. They were represented in a chariot drawn by two wild horses, whose names were Flight and Terror.</p>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_037.png"/>
        </figure>
        <p>Discord, Clamour, Anger, and Fear attended the chariot of Mars. The <hi rend="i">dog</hi>, for his eagerness in pursuit of prey; the <hi rend="i">wolf</hi>, for his fierceness; the <hi rend="i">raven</hi>, which feeds upon the slain; the <hi rend="i">cock</hi>, for his wakefulness, were all consecrated to a god, who was himself without pity, forbearance, or fear.</p>
        <p>Men worshipped Mars, to engage his assistance against their enemies, or through fear of his power. They could not feel love and trust in a being who was neither just nor benevolent. Mars was dreaded upon earth, and detested in heaven. In the <title>Iliad</title>, Jupiter addresses him thus:</p>
        <quote>
          <l>Of all the gods that tread the spangled skies,</l>
          <l>Thou most unjust, most hateful in our eyes!</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Anonyme"/></bibl>
            <note place="margin" resp="editor"><bibl>[Translator : <author key="Pope" role="translator">Pope</author>]</bibl></note>
        </quote>
        <p>The Romans were a more warlike people than the Greeks; they held Mars in higher reverence than the former people. The priests of Mars at Rome were called Salii, — hey had the care of Ancilia, or sacred shields. These shields were sacred to Mars, and were held in superstitious reverence by the Romans.</p>
        <p>In the early ages of Rome, a shield was found, of a shape which was not known among the Romans. An oracle was consulted by the person who found the shield, in order to learn its origin. The oracle declared that the shield had fallen from heaven, and that Mars would favour the people who should preserve it, and that they should overcome their enemies and conquer the world; that is, all the civilized world, which then included the countries round the Mediterranean, and which the Romans several centuries after completely subdued.</p>
        <p>Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome, in order to secure the shield from being lost, caused several to be made, so exactly like it, that it was almost impossible to distinguish the original. Their form was oval. Their number was twelve; as was that of the priests, or Salii, at first, though afterwards they were increased to twenty-four.</p>
        <p>Bellona had a temple at Rome. She usually harnessed the terrible horses of Mars, and with dishevelled hair, and frantic gestures, drove them through the field of battle. Victory was also an attendant of Mars. She had several temples in Greece and Rome. Games were instituted in honour of Victory.</p>
        <p>A figure of Victory was often placed upon the car of a Roman conqueror when he appeared in triumph. Victory was then represented as flying, holding a crown, a branch of palm, and a globe.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Mars?</p>
          <p>Who attended Mars, and what animals were sacred to him?</p>
          <p>How was he regarded in heaven and on earth?</p>
          <p>What nation chiefly honoured Mars?</p>
          <p>What reverence was attached to the Ancilia?</p>
          <p>What king instituted the Salii?</p>
          <p>Who was Bellona?</p>
          <p>How was Victory represented?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Vulcan.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 37.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Vulcan</hi> was the god of fire, of smiths, and of metals, and the armorer of the gods. The working of metals is a most important circumstance in the civilization of man. By very little thought we instantly perceive that without the use of iron we could not cultivate the earth, prepare our food by the help of fire, possess any fine cutting instruments, or carry on any manufacture. For want of such accommodations we should be in the lowest state of savage life.</p>
        <p>The ancient Greeks sometimes imputed the art of forging metals to Prometheus. Perhaps Prometheus first discovered that metals were capable of fusion, and taught the art of manufacturing them to mankind; but Vulcan, according to the mythology was skilled in this mechanic operation, and was, in fact, a labourer at the anvil.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>“Obscure in smoke his flaming forges sound,</l>
          <l>While bathed in sweat, from fire to fire he flew;</l>
          <l>And puffing loud the roaring bellows blew.”</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Anonyme"/></bibl>
            <note place="margin" resp="editor"><bibl>[Translator : <author key="Pope" ref="translator">Pope</author>]</bibl></note>
        </quote>
        <p>In the book of <title>Genesis</title> it is said that Tubalcain, one of the first men, was
          <quote>“an instructer of every artificer in brass and iron.”</quote> This Tubalcain might have been the same man whom the Greeks described either as Prometheus, or as Vulcan, but the fable says, Vulcan was the son of Jupiter and Juno. Vulcan is sometimes called Mulciber, and Lemnius.</p>
        <p>It is said that Jupiter, taking offence at Vulcan, kicked him out of heaven, and that he fell into the island of Lemnos, and was lamed by his fall. At Lemnos he set up his forges, but afterwards moved to the volcanic islands of Lipari, near Sicily, where he forged Jupiter’s thunderbolts.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>Nor was his name unheard or unadorned</l>
          <l>In ancient Greece: and in Ausonian land</l>
          <l>Men called him Mulciber; and how he fell</l>
          <l>From heaven they fabled, thrown by angry Jove.</l>
          <l>                                             From morn</l>
          <l>To noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve,</l>
          <l>A summer’s day; and with the setting sun,</l>
          <l>Drops from the zenith, like a falling star,</l>
          <l>On Lemnos, the Ægean isle.</l>
          <bibl><title>Paradise Lost</title>, Book I.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>Venus was the beautiful wife of Vulcan.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>——— when of old, as mystic bards presume,</l>
          <l>Huge Cyclops dwelt in Etna’s rocky womb,</l>
          <l>On thundering anvils rung their loud alarms,</l>
          <l>And leagued with Vulcan, forged immortal arms;</l>
          <l>Descending Venus sought the dark abode,</l>
          <l>And soothed the labours of the grisly god.</l>
          <l>     With radiant eye she viewed the boiling ore,</l>
          <l>Heard undismayed the breathing bellows roar,</l>
          <l>Admired their sinewy arms and shoulders bare,</l>
          <l>And ponderous hammers lifted high in air;</l>
          <l>With smiles celestial blessed their dazzled sight,</l>
          <l>And beauty blazed amid infernal night.</l>
          <bibl><title>Botanic Garden</title>, Canto I.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>Vulcan wrought a helmet for Pluto, which rendered him invisible; a trident for Neptune, which shook both land and sea; and a dog of brass for Jupiter. He also constructed invincible armour for Achilles and Eneas. The former a Greek, and the latter a Trojan hero, who were engaged in the siege of Troy. Vulcan also fabricated palaces of pure gold for the celestial deities.</p>
        <p>At Athens and Rome, festivals were kept to his honour. Upon Mount Etna a temple was dedicated to him, which was guarded by dogs, whose sense of smelling was said to be so exquisite, as to enable them to discern whether persons who came there were virtuous or vicious, and who fawned upon, or drove them away accordingly.</p>
        <p>The Romans, in their most solemn treaties, invoked Vulcan; and the assemblies in which they discussed the most important affairs, were held in the temple of Vulcan. At Memphis, in Egypt, also, was a most magnificent edifice raised in honour of this god, before which stood a colossal statue seventy feet high.</p>
        <p>The fiction of the <hi rend="i">thunderbolts</hi> proceeded from the notion of ignorant people concerning the phenomenon of <hi rend="i">thunder</hi>. The sound of thunder resembles that of a heavy blow from some powerful instrument, as a cannon-ball, which breaks into a thousand fragments whatever it strikes. Thunder is known to be the explosion of the electric fluid, and its dispersion into the atmosphere, accompanied by the evolution of fire.</p>
        <p>Before natural philosophy made this discovery, ignorant people fancied that thunder was an expression of the divine anger, and that it was produced by the <hi rend="i">bolts</hi> of Jupiter. These bolts were supposed to be sharp and barbed points, driven with a terrible force from the mighty arm of Jupiter, and which carried destruction before them. The ancients sometimes marked the spot where they supposed a thunderbolt had fallen, enclosed the place, and held it in reverence.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Vulcan, and of what use is the manufacture of metals?</p>
          <p>Whom did the ancients suppose were the first workers of metals?</p>
          <p>Whom say the Hebrew scriptures was the first metallurgist?</p>
          <p>What is the history of Vulcan?</p>
          <p>In what verses is Venus described as visiting Vulcan?</p>
          <p>What did Vulcan manufacture?</p>
          <p>What was the worship of Vulcan?</p>
          <p>How was Vulcan honoured at Rome?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>The Cyclops.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">The</hi> Cyclops were the workmen of Vulcan; they were probably very strong men, employed in the most laborious services of society. In Peloponnesus some of the first edifices were constructed of vast stones, which still remain. The arrangement of these stones, before the machines existed which have since been invented to assist labour, must have required immensely strong men. This is therefore called, from the Cyclops, the Cyclopean architecture.<note place="bottom">
          <author key="Dr. Clarke">Dr. Clarke</author>.</note></p>
        <p>Vulcan had many Cyclops; the chief were Brontes, Steropes, and Pyracmon. The Cyclops were of prodigious stature, and had each but one eye, placed in the middle of their foreheads; lived on such fruits and herbs as the earth spontaneously affords, and had no laws. All this only describes rude men, living by hard labour in a state of poverty.</p>
        <p>The fiction of the Cyclops being one-eyed arose from the fact, that when they were exposed to the most violent action of the fire with which the wrought, they were forced to shield their faces with a piece of stiff leather, that had in the middle of a single perforation through which they looked.</p>
        <p>
          <author key="Virgile">Virgil</author> thus describes the Cyclops at their work</p>
        <quote>
          <l>Amid the Hesperian and Sicilian flood,</l>
          <l>All black with smoke, a rocky island stood,</l>
          <l>The dark Vulcanian land, the region of the god.</l>
          <l>Here the grim Cyclops ply, in vaults profound,</l>
          <l>The huge Æolian forge that thunders round.</l>
          <l>The eternal anvils ring the dungeon o’er;</l>
          <l>From side to side the fiery caverns roar.</l>
          <l>Loud groans the mass beneath their ponderous blows,</l>
          <l>Fierce burns the flame, and the full furnace glows.</l>
          <l>                            * * * * * * *</l>
          <l>The alternate blows the brawny brethren deal;</l>
          <l>Thick burst the sparkles from the tortured steel.</l>
          <l>Huge strokes, rough Steropes and Brontes gave,</l>
          <l>And strong Pyracmon shook the gloomy cave.</l>
          <l>Before their sovereign came, the Cyclops strove</l>
          <l>With eager speed, to forge a bolt for Jove,</l>
          <l>Such as by heaven’s almighty lord are hurled.</l>
          <l>All charged with vengeance on a guilty world.</l>
          <l>Beneath their hands, tremendous to survey!</l>
          <l>Half rough, half formed, the dreadful engine lay;</l>
          <l>Three points of rain, three forks of hail conspire,</l>
          <l>Three armed with wind; and three were barbed with fire</l>
          <l>The mass they tempered thick with livid rays,</l>
          <l>Fear, Wrath, and Terror, and the lightning’s blaze.</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Pitt">Pitt</author>’s<title> Translation</title>.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who were the Cyclops?</p>
          <p>What mode of life did the Cyclops follow?</p>
          <p>What is meant by the Cyclops being one-eyed?</p>
          <p>What is Virgil’s description of the Cyclops?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Pandora.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">The</hi> name of Pandora signifies <hi rend="i">all gifts</hi>. Pandora was originally a beautiful female image, formed by the skill of Vulcan, and carried to heaven. There Jupiter endowed her with life; Venus gave her beauty; Pallas, wisdom, and Juno, riches; Mercury taught her eloquence, and Apollo, music.</p>
        <p>With these accomplishments Pandora was a perfect woman, and she was sent by Jupiter in a box to Prometheus. Jupiter, it is said, was angry at Prometheus for the manifold blessings which the latter had bestowed upon mankind, because Jupiter himself chose to be regarded as the supreme benefactor of the human race.</p>
        <p>To revenge himself upon Prometheus, Jupiter sent him the gifted Pandora for a bride. She was enclosed in a box with diseases, war, pestilence, famine, discord, envy, calumny, and all the evils which Prometheus had endeavoured to banish from the earth. Prometheus, dreading some concealed evil, refused the present of Jupiter; but Epimetheus, the brother of Prometheus, felt greater curiosity, and opened the box. The beautiful Pandora instantly appeared, and with her came forth all the train of calamities which were concealed in die box, but Hope remained behind.</p>
        <p>The meaning of this allegory appears to be, that the most beautiful and estimable things in this world, are sometimes connected with the most grievous misfortunes, but that, in every affliction, man is comforted with the hope of relief and of better days.</p>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Prometheus.</head>
        <quote>
          <l>Thy godlike crime was to be kind,</l>
          <l>To render with thy precepts less</l>
          <l>The sum of human wretchedness,</l>
          <l>And strengthen man with his own mind.</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Byron">Byron</author>.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Prometheus</hi> was, doubtless, one of the first civilizers of mankind. He first yoked the ox, and disciplined the horse: he taught the use of fire, and the fusion of metals, and he also is said to have been the inventor of letters; he instructed men to cultivate and refine their manners, and to examine the laws of nature, that the treasures hidden in the earth might be brought forth and made serviceable.</p>
        <p>Because Prometheus employed fire more curiously and successfully than other men, he is said to have stolen it from heaven. He was accused of having taken this fire from the chariot of the sun; he probably obtained it by concentrating the sun’s rays, as may be done by a burning-glass; and this, ignorant persons considered stealing from heaven. It was asserted that he formed statues, into whom he transfused fire from heaven, which gave them life.</p>
        <p>Jupiter, not having succeeded in making the benevolent Prometheus unhappy, sent Mercury and Vulcan to seize and chain him to mount Caucasus. There a vulture was commanded to prey upon his liver, which was reproduced so soon as it was devoured, so that he was doomed to eternal sufferings. Hercules killed the vulture, and liberated Prometheus.</p>
        <p>The hatred and vengeance of Jupiter against Prometheus gives a very unworthy notion of the god’s character. We reverence God because he is infinitely great and powerful; and we love him because he is as good as he is powerful; and we know that whatever good we do to our fellow-creatures is acceptable to him, and is, indeed, commanded by him. To punish a benefactor of mankind for his benevolence, is not suitable to the character of a benevolent being.</p>
        <p>
          <author key="Eschyle">Æschylus</author>, the Greek dramatic poet, in his drama of <title>Prometheus</title>, describes Prometheus as being bound to the rock by Force and Strength, instead of Vulcan and Mercury. <hi rend="i">Force</hi> and <hi rend="i">Strength</hi> may signify the power and cruelty of bad men who were enemies of Prometheus, and who might have confined him in some solitary place, on account of his generous services to his fellow-men.</p>
        <p>In modern history many distinguished benefactors of mankind have suffered greatly fro the <hi rend="i">force</hi> and <hi rend="i">strength</hi> of powerful tyrants. The discoverer of America was sent to Spain in chains, after having given a new hemisphere to Europe: and Galileo, the Italian astronomer, was put in prison because he demonstrated the motions of the heavenly bodies. The malignity of his enemies is a more rational cause for the sufferings of Prometheus than the vengeful and jealous treatment of a god.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>What signifies the name of Pandora?</p>
          <p>How did Jupiter dispose of Pandora?</p>
          <p>Did Prometheus receive Pandora?</p>
          <p>What is the meaning of this allegory?</p>
          <p>Who was Prometheus?</p>
          <p>Of what was Prometheus accused?</p>
          <p>How did Jupiter persecute Prometheus, and who was his deliverer?</p>
          <p>Is it natural to suppose that a god would persecute a good man?</p>
          <p>How does
            <author key="Eschyle">Æschylus</author> represent the sufferings of Prometheus?</p>
          <p>Does modern history furnish similar examples?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Juno.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 49.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Juno</hi>, the queen of heaven, was the sister and wife of Jupiter. Though a celestial goddess, the mythologists say she was born upon earth. It is disputed whether Juno’s birth-place was the island of Samos or the city of Argos. At the latter place she was accounted a <hi rend="i">tutelary</hi> or guardian goddess.</p>
        <p>At Rome, Juno was worshipped in the earliest age of the city. Tatius, the colleague of Romulus, instituted rites in her honour. At Rome she was called Juno Matrona, the <hi rend="i">matron</hi> or mother, and was regarded with the highest veneration.</p>
        <p>Juno was haughty, vindictive, and jealous. She often quarrelled with her husband, and was implacable in her anger. The ancients, however, represented her under different characters. The Romans had a mild Juno, who had a benevolent and gracious countenance.</p>
        <p>In general, Juno appears as a queen, seated upon a throne, holding in one hand a spindle, and in the other a sceptre. Her deportment was majestic, and her countenance severe, and a radiant crown was on her head. Near her was commonly placed her favourite bird, the peacock.</p>
        <p>Juno bestowed empire and riches. When she appeared before Paris on Mount Ida, she offered him a city. The poppy and the lily were sacred to her, and she is sometimes exhibited with these flowers in her car, when she appears as the queen of the air, and is borne through the heavens by peacocks, and attended by Iris, the goddess of the rainbow.</p>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Iris.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">In</hi> the <title>Hebrew Scriptures</title> the rainbow is the symbol of peace, God’s peace with the guilty world, which was punished and pardoned. When the first bow was set in the cloud this gracious promise was uttered,
          <quote>“henceforth, summer and winter, day and night, seed-time and harvest shall never fail.”</quote> <title>Gen.</title> ch. ix. ver. 12.</p>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_049.png"/>
        </figure>
        <p>The heathens seem to have known that the rainbow intimated God’s goodness, for they personified this meteor under the figure of Iris, who was the messenger of peace to the dying. Iris was a beautiful female, the constant attendant of Juno, and more particularly the messenger of that goddess.</p>
        <p>Iris was frequently employed by Juno to stir up strife among men. She is commonly represented with wings, and with her head encircled by a rainbow. The most benevolent office of Iris was to disengage the soul from the body, and she descended from heaven on this errand. Iris attended only dying persons of the female sex.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Juno?</p>
          <p>Was Juno worshipped at Rome?</p>
          <p>What was the character of Juno?</p>
          <p>How is Juno represented?</p>
          <p>What was Juno’s prerogative?</p>
          <p>What was the promise of God on the first appearance of the rainbow?</p>
          <p>Why was Iris represented as a divine messenger?</p>
          <p>Had Iris any other office than those of favour to mankind?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Hebe and Ganymede.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Hebe</hi> was the daughter of Jupiter and Juno. She was the goddess of youth, and had the power of imparting to others her own perpetual healthfulness and vigour. Hebe is, in fact, the personification of youthful beauty. She is represented as happy and innocent.</p>
        <p>Hebe is always represented as a beautiful virgin, crowned with flowers, and attired in a variegated garment.</p>
        <p>Jupiter, on account of her beauty, chose Hebe for his cup-bearer.</p>
        <p>The gods of the heathen were not represented as <hi rend="i">pure intelligences</hi>, that is, as <hi rend="i">spirits</hi> without animal wants. They ate, drank, slept, and went journeys.</p>
        <p>When the Israelites adopted the idolatries of Syria, the prophet Elijah reproves the worshippers of Baal by this derision,
          <quote>“Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or per adventure he sleepeth and must be awaked.”</quote> <title>1 Kings</title>, ch. xviii.</p>
        <p>
          <author key="Homère">Homer</author>, in the first book of the <title>Iliad</title>, describes the gods as having left the high Olympus, and being absent in Ethiopia.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>The sire of gods, and all the ethereal train,</l>
          <l>On the warm limits of the farthest main,</l>
          <l>Now mix with mortals, nor disdain to grace</l>
          <l>The feasts of Ethiopia’s hlameless race.</l>
          <l>Twelve days the powers indulge the genial rite,</l>
          <l>Returning with the twelfth revolving light.</l>
          <bibl><title>Iliad</title>, Book I.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>The heathen deities, like mortals, had their day and night.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>                            The radiant sun, to mortal sight,</l>
          <l>Descending swift, rolled down the rapid light,</l>
          <l>Then to their starry domes the gods depart,</l>
          <l>The shining monuments<note place="bottom">These domes were separate habitations of the celestial gods, constructed by Vulcan.</note> of Vulcan’s art.</l>
          <l>Jove on his couch reclined his awful head,</l>
          <l>And Juno slumbered on the golden bed.</l>
          <bibl><title>Iliad</title>, Book I.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p><hi rend="i">Jupiter</hi>, however, is supposed never to have slept.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>The immortals slumbered on their thrones above,</l>
          <l>All but the ever-wakeful eyes of Jove.</l>
          <bibl><title>Iliad</title>, Book II.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>The food of the gods was not supposed to be formed of the gross aliments of earth.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>For not the bread of man their life sustains,</l>
          <l>Nor wine’s inflaming juice supplies their veins.</l>
        </quote>
        <p>Their sustenance was nectar and ambrosia. The former their dunk, and the latter their food. These imaginary aliments were more delicious than any known to mankind. Hebe presented nectar to Jupiter in a golden cup.</p>
        <p>Once, when Hebe was offering nectar to Jupiter, she fell. This carelessness offended his majesty, and she was deprived of the honour of serving him.</p>
        <p>When Hebe was dismissed, Ganymede was chosen to succeed her.</p>
        <p>Ganymede was a prince of Troy. His occupation was the care of flocks on Mount Ida. He was exquisitely beautiful, and an eagle carried him from earth to heaven, where he poured out nectar for Jupiter.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Hebe?</p>
          <p>Were the heathen gods supposed to be spirits?</p>
          <p>How did the prophet Elijah deride this false notion of God?</p>
          <p>Does
            <author key="Homère">Homer</author> represent the gods as omnipresent, that is, filling every part of the universe at once?</p>
          <p>Did the heathen deities sleep?</p>
          <p>What was the food of the gods?</p>
          <p>Why was Hebe dismissed by Jupiter?</p>
          <p>Who was Ganymede?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Minerva.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 55.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Minerva</hi> was the goddess of Wisdom. Wisdom is the knowledge of what is right and true, and of what is best to be done, when intelligent beings are called upon to act. Wisdom also includes the will to do what is right, and the love of goodness and truth. The God whom we worship is infinitely wise.</p>
        <p>The heathens personified Wisdom under the character of Minerva. Solomon, the wise Hebrew king, also personified wisdom in the book of <title>Proverbs</title>, and represented her as the counsellor of God in the creation of the world.</p>
        <quote>
          <p>“The Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was.</p>
          <p>“When there were no depths I was brought forth; when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled; before the hills was I brought forth: while as yet he had not made the earth nor the fields, nor the highest part of the dust of the world.</p>
          <p>“When he prepared the heavens, I was there: when he set a compass upon the face of the depth: when he established the clouds above: when he strengthened the fountains of the deep. When he gave to the sea his decree, that the waters should not pass his commandment: when he appointed the foundations of the earth: Then I was by him, and I was daily his delight, rejoicing always before him.”</p>
        </quote>
        <p>Minerva was the daughter of Jupiter. The poetic fiction concerning her is, that Jupiter being tormented with an excessive pain in his head, applied to Vulcan to open it with a keen axe; and upon his doing so, Minerva instantly sprang forth, a goddess armed.</p>
        <p>Minerva was the tutelary, or guardian goddess of Athens. That city was called by one of her names, Athenæ; its original name was Cecropia, from the founder, Cecrops. Minerva was also called Pallas, from a Greek word, signifying bearing a javelin. She is often called in
          <author key="Homère">Homer</author>, the
          <quote>“<hi rend="i">blue-eyed maid</hi>,”</quote> for she never married.</p>
        <p>The fable relates, that Neptune and Minerva disputed for the honour of giving a name to the capital of Attica. The gods decided that whichsoever should bestow the most useful gift upon the citizens, should give a name to the city. Neptune gave them a horse, and Minerva an <hi rend="i">olive tree</hi>. The latter gift was the most valued by the inhabitants of Cecropia, and from that time they called their city Athenæ.</p>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_055.png"/>
        </figure>
        <p>Minerva was represented as a beautiful woman, of a countenance somewhat severe. On her head was a golden helmet, and her breastplate was also of gold. In her right hand Minerva bore a beaming lance, and in her left a buckler, called the Egis.</p>
        <p>The Egis of Minerva had embossed upon it the head of Medusa. Medusa was one of the Gorgons, a sea nymph — she offended Minerva, and the goddess transformed her beautiful hair to frightful serpents. Thus disfigured. Medusa became an object of aversion and horror. Perseus, a prince of Argos, was employed to cut off this terrific head.</p>
        <p>Perseus, in this expedition, was assisted by the gods. Mercury gave him a cimeter, and the wings from his heels; Minerva lent him a shield, polished like a mirror: and Pluto bestowed upon him a helmet which rendered him invisible. Thus equipped, Perseus flew to Spain, where he found Medusa, and unseen himself, presented the mirror to the Gorgon; — while she was gazing at herself, he cut off her head.</p>
        <p>Perseus afterwards presented the head to Minerva, who placed it upon her shield; and so frightful was it, that those who beheld it were turned to stone.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>With the bright wreath of serpent tresses crowned,</l>
          <l>Severe in beauty, young Medusa frowned:</l>
          <l>Erewhile subdued, round <hi rend="i">Wisdom’s</hi> Egis rolled,</l>
          <l>Hiss the dread snakes, and flamed in burnished gold;</l>
          <l>Flashed on her brandished arm the immortal shield,</l>
          <l>And terror lighted on the dazzled field.</l>
          <bibl><title>Botanic Garden</title>.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>The Egis was not often thus employed, — it was only used to affright the bad. The meaning of this fable is, that if men in the midst of crimes are overtaken by the terrors of the wise and just God, they are suddenly stopped in the midst of their wicked purposes, and terrified at their own guilt, by a power who is of purer eyes than to behold iniquity with complacency.</p>
        <p>The Palladium was an image of Pallas, which was supposed to have fallen from heaven.</p>
        <p>The Palladium was preserved with great vigilance in the citadel of Troy, because an Oracle had declared, that, as long as it remained there, the city would be invincible against all the attacks of its enemies. Diomed and Ulysses, two of the Grecian heroes, contrived to convey the Palladium away, and Troy was taken.</p>
        <p>Eneas, the son of Venus, and the great ancestor of the Romans, is said, by
          <author key="Anonyme">some of their writers</author>, to have recovered and brought it with him into Italy. They assert that this celebrated image was deposited in the temple of Vesta, as a pledge of the stability of the empire and dominion of Rome. Hence, the word Palladium is sometimes used figuratively, to signify the preservation or safeguard of any valuable object. As, for example, the palladium of American liberty, or its security, is the virtue of our citizens.</p>
        <p>The Parthenon, called from one of Minerva’s names Parthenos, was the most splendid and beautiful temple of antiquity, and was erected in honour of this goddess at Athens. On a conspicuous part of this temple was sculptured the different worshippers of Minerva — young and old, bond and free; and by means of these figures, which have been preserved, we are enabled to know the style of dress common to the Athenians.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was the heathen goddess of Wisdom — and what is signified by Wisdom?</p>
          <p>Who personified Wisdom, and how?</p>
          <p>What is the description of heavenly Wisdom in the book of <title>Proverbs</title>?</p>
          <p>What is the poetic origin of Minerva?</p>
          <p>How is Minerva represented?</p>
          <p>Of what city was Minerva the guardian?</p>
          <p>Why was the name of Minerva given to Athens?</p>
          <p>How was Minerva’s Egis distinguished?</p>
          <p>Who assisted Perseus in this enterprise?</p>
          <p>What use did Perseus make of Medusa’s head?</p>
          <p>What does the fable of the shield signify?</p>
        </q>
        <ab type="ornament">———</ab>
        <p>The Panathenæa was a festival, celebrated in honour of Minerva. It occurred in our month of June. The principal inhabitants of all the towns in Attica, resorted to Athens on this occasion, bringing with them numerous victims for the sacrifices. Horse races, wrestling matches, and musical performances were exhibited for the public entertainment at this festival.</p>
        <p>The songs sung at the Panathenæa were commonly the eulogium of some citizen, who had performed a distinguished service to the state. Thus the achievements of heroes were kept in the memory of the Athenian people, and served as lessons to others who might wish to serve their country. An olive wreath was bestowed, as a mark of the public approbation upon those that excelled in any of these competitions.</p>
        <p>At this festival a very interesting procession was formed. It was composed of different classes of the citizens, and those who appeared in it were selected for their fine appearance. First advanced old men, still vigorous, who were of a majestic and venerable form — these bore in their hands branches of the olive tree. The old men were followed by those of middle age, clothed in polished armour, and after them proceeded youths under twenty years of age.</p>
        <p>The young persons were of both sexes — the boys clad in plain garments, and the girls dressed with simplicity, and carrying; baskets of cakes and flowers as offerings to the goddess. These were of honourable families, and were attended by the daughters of foreigners settled at Athens. The latter carried a folding seat for the young girls to rest upon, and an umbrella to screen them from the sun; they also carried water and honey for the <hi rend="i">libations</hi>. Foreigners, or sojourners as they were called, who resided at Athens, held a rank inferior to natives of the city</p>
        <p>Musicians, some playing on the flute, and others upon the lyre, <hi rend="i">rhapsodists</hi>, who sang passages from
          <author key="Homère">Homer</author>’s poems, and dancers of singular grace accompanied the procession, and passed through the streets, amidst a crowd of spectators. When the whole reached the temple of Minerva, a magnificent sacrifice ended the solemnity, and the assembly dispersed to different places, where they concluded the day in feasting and mirth.</p>
        <p>The most celebrated statue of Minerva in ancient times, was that of the Parthenon, thirty-nine feet in height, formed of ivory and gold. It was the work of
          <author key="Phidias">Phidias</author>, produced by the request of Pericles. The Athenians were offended at
          <author key="Phidias">Phidias</author>, because it was discovered that among certain figures, engraved upon the shield of Minerva, he had placed likenesses of himself and of Pericles. In consequence, this capricious people banished
          <author key="Phidias">Phidias</author>, and he withdrew from Athens to Elis, where he was beloved and cherished, and where he made a statue of Jupiter, that was reckoned among the seven wonders of the world.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>What was the Palladium?</p>
          <p>Who carried the Palladium to Italy?</p>
          <p>What was the Parthenon?</p>
          <p>What was the Panathenæa?</p>
          <p>What were the songs sung at the Panathenæa?</p>
          <p>What procession appeared at Athens at this festival?</p>
          <p>How did young persons appear at the Panathenæa?</p>
          <p>How was the Panathenæa concluded?</p>
          <p>What was the most celebrated statue of Minerva?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Ceres.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 55.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Ceres</hi>, the daughter of Saturn and Ops, was the goddess of agriculture. She first instructed men to plough the soil, to sow seeds, to reap the harvest, to thresh the grain, to make flour and bread, to enclose fields, and to mark out the limits of each individual’s property.</p>
        <p>In the first ages of society, men fed upon wild fruits, and the flesh of wild animals taken in hunting — they are then in a <hi rend="i">barbarous</hi> state. When they discover the use of vegetable substances, and acquire the art of procuring them from the fields, <hi rend="i">they have advanced one step in civilization</hi> — they are in the agricultural state. Ceres, possibly, might have done much to advance her contemporaries from a savage condition, to one of greater industry and comfort.</p>
        <p>Ceres might have made some improvements in the art of cultivating the earth. The Egyptians worshipped a goddess, called by them Isis; who, like the Ceres of the Greeks, conferred the gifts of corn, bread, and separated property. The mythologists say, that Isis and Ceres are the same goddess, worshipped under those different names, in different countries in the pagan world.</p>
        <p>The image of Ceres was that of a tall female, having her head adorned with ears of wheat. Her right hand was filled with poppies and corn, and her left carried a lighted torch. Ceres had splendid temples, and she was worshipped by husbandmen in the fields, before they began to reap. Sacrifices to her were also offered in the spring, and <hi rend="i">oblations</hi> of wine, honey, and milk.</p>
        <p>
          <author key="Virgile">Virgil</author> mentions this rural observance:</p>
        <quote>
          <l>To Ceres bland, her annual rites be paid,</l>
          <l>On the green turf, beneath the fragrant shade:</l>
          <l>When winter ends and spring serenely shines,</l>
          <l>Then fat the lambs, then mellow are the wines:</l>
          <l>Then sweet are slumbers on the flowery ground;</l>
          <l>Then with thick shades are lofty mountains crowned.</l>
          <l>Let all the hinds bend low at Ceres’ shrine;</l>
          <l>Mix honey sweet, for her, with milk and mellow wine.</l>
          <l>Thrice lead the victim the new fruits around,</l>
          <l>And Ceres call, and choral hymns resound.</l>
          <l>Presume not, swains, the ripened grain to reap,</l>
          <l>Till crowned with oak in antic dance you leap.</l>
          <l>Invoking Ceres; and in solemn lays.</l>
          <l>Exalt your rural queen’s immortal praise.</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Pitt"><hi rend="i">Pitt</hi></author>’s
            <author key="Virgile"><hi rend="i">Virgil</hi></author> . </bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>The worship of Ceres was universal among those who received the religion of Greece. The most solemn ceremonial of that religion was the festival of Ceres, celebrated at Eleusis, a town in Attica, and particularly honoured by the Athenians. These solemnities were called the Eleusinian Mysteries.</p>
        <p>The word mysteries signifies something not commonly known. The Mysteries of Eleusis seems to have been an institution resembling modern Masonry, in the particular of secrecy at least. <hi rend="i">Initiated persons</hi> — that is, those who were admitted to be present at the ceremonies at Eleusis, were strictly forbidden to divulge what they saw there.</p>
        <p>Persons of both sexes were admitted by the high priest, called the Hierophant, to the mysteries of Eleusis. It was pretended that those \w\\o enjoyed this privilege were under the immediate protection of the goddess, and not only in this life, but after death. Those who broke the vow to conceal what they were instructed in, in these mysteries, were accounted <hi rend="i">execrable</hi>.</p>
        <p><hi rend="i">Execration</hi> was a sentence which forbade all people to dwell in the same house, to enter the same ship, to drink from the same vessel, to buy and sell, or to converse with the person considered <hi rend="i">sacrilegious</hi>. The sentence of execration permitted any one to put the supposed criminal to death as a public offender.</p>
        <p>The mysteries of Eleusis are believed to have consisted of certain spectacles, sometimes brilliant, and sometimes frightful. Splendid fireworks, succeeded by complete darkness, artificial thunder and lightning, and pretended forms of spirits.</p>
        <p>The first introduction to these exhibitions was the <hi rend="i">initiation</hi>. What these mysteries really signified is unknown. The garments worn at the <hi rend="i">initiation</hi> were accounted holy, and preserved as <hi rend="i">charms</hi>, that is, as being preventives to accidents and diseases, or malevolence of enemies.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Ceres?</p>
          <p>What is the primitive condition of mankind?</p>
          <p>What favour did Ceres probably confer, and what was she called by the Egyptians?</p>
          <p>How was Ceres represented?</p>
          <p>In what verses is her worship described?</p>
          <p>What honours were offered to Ceres at Eleusis?</p>
          <p>What are Mysteries?</p>
          <p>How were persons admitted to the mysteries of Eleusis regarded?</p>
          <p>What was execration?</p>
          <p>What spectacles were exhibited at Eleusis?</p>
          <p>What superstition is related concerning the initiation?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Proserpine.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 65.</p>
        <p>One of the prettiest fictions of the mythology is the story of Proserpine. Proserpine was the beloved daughter of Ceres. The favourite residence of Ceres was the beautiful and fertile island of Sicily. In Sicily the young Proserpine was bred up, and her innocent and happy occupation was to wander over the valley of Enna, where, attended by companions as lovely as herself, she delighted in gathering flowers.</p>
        <p>One day as Proserpine, with the daughters of Oceanus, was diverting herself in the pleasant fields of Enna, Pluto, the king of the infernal regions, appeared in his chariot drawn by two fine horses, black as ebony.</p>
        <p>Admiring the beauty of Proserpine, Pluto was resolved to make her his queen, and had come to carry her off with him.</p>
        <p>The young virgins saw him, and one of them, says a modern poet, in terror exclaimed,</p>
        <quote>
          <l>    ’Tis he, ’tis he, he comes to us</l>
          <l>From the depths of Tartarus.</l>
          <l>For what of evil doth he roam</l>
          <l>From his red and gloomy home,</l>
          <l>In the centre of the world,</l>
          <l>Where the sinful dead are hurled?</l>
          <l>Mark him as he moves along,</l>
          <l>Drawn by horses black and strong,</l>
          <l>Such as may belong to night</l>
          <l>Ere she takes her morning flight.</l>
          <l/>
          <l>     Now the chariot stops: the god</l>
          <l>On our grassy world has trod;</l>
          <l>Like a Titan steppeth he,</l>
          <l>Yet full of his divinity.</l>
          <l>On his mighty shoulders lie</l>
          <l>Raven locks, and in his eye</l>
          <l>A cruel beauty, such as none</l>
          <l>Of us may wisely look upon.</l>
          <bibl>
            <author key="Barry Cornwal">Barry Cornwal</author>l.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>It appears, however, that Pluto had nothing frightful in the apprehension of Proserpine, and that she was taken without much resistance. The ground opened upon the occasion, the ebon coursers descended, and where the earth closed over the car of Pluto and Proserpine a fountain gushed out. This fountain was called Cyane, and thither the Sicilians would afterwards resort, and celebrate the descent of Proserpine in annual festivals.</p>
        <p>Ceres, alarmed at the absence of Proserpine, sought for her among the flowers of Enna, but she only found her daughter’s veil. It is related of Ceres, that in her distress she kindled a torch at the flames of Mount Ætna, and carrying it in her hand, to light her in all dark places, went over the world in search of her lost child.</p>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_065.png"/>
        </figure>
        <p>Ceres, after a while, discovered whither Proserpine had been carried. Angry and grieved at this act of violence, Ceres supplicated Jupiter that Proserpine by his supreme authority might be restored to earth. Jupiter, to comfort and appease Ceres, consented, on condition that Proserpine had not tasted any thing in hell.</p>
        <p>Ceres, upon this, descended to the dark dominions of Pluto, and was welcomed by Proserpine, who gladly prepared to return to earth with her mother. Pluto, however, was not to be deceived; he had employed a spy called Ascalaphus to watch Proserpine, and when she was about to depart Ascalaphus declared that he had seen her eating a pomegranate. Therefore Proserpine was detained, and Ceres compelled to leave her.</p>
        <p>Again Ceres entreated Jupiter, and he consented that Proserpine should divide the year between earth and hell. She was to spend six months with her mother, and the other six months with Pluto. The mythologists say this signifies that Proserpine represented corn, which lies during winter, in its seed state, below the surface of the earth, and then rises to the upper air and adorns the fields</p>
        <p>Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, is usually drawn with an owl by her side. This owl is no other than Ascalaphus. When Proserpine heard him inform Pluto that she had eaten the pomegranate, in her anger she sprinkled water of Phlegethon upon his head, and metamorphosed him into an owl, which Minerva afterwards took for her attendant.</p>
        <p>The owl is not accounted a sagacious bird but his faculty of seeing in darkness, when others cannot see, represents the vigilance of Ascalaphus, who watched Proserpine when he was not himself observed. It is suitable to wisdom, which discerns where the careless are blind, to take such a bird as her emblem.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Proserpine, and how did she employ herself?</p>
          <p>Who carried off Proserpine to the infernal regions?</p>
          <p>What did one of her companions exclaim?</p>
          <p>What happened on the descent of Pluto and Proserpine?</p>
          <p>What did Ceres when she lost her daughter?</p>
          <p>Of whom did Ceres entreat relief?</p>
          <p>Was Proserpine restored to earth?</p>
          <p>Did Ceres offer a second petition to Jupiter, and what is represented by this part of the fable of Proserpine?</p>
          <p>What became of Ascalaphus?</p>
          <p>Is the owl a proper attendant of Minerva?</p>
        </q>
        <ab type="ornament">———</ab>
        <quote>
          <label>Venus and Cupid.</label>
          <l>The froth-born Venus, ravishing to sight,</l>
          <l>Rose from the ample sea to upper light.</l>
          <l>And on her head the flower of summer swelled,</l>
          <l>And blushed all lovely, and like Eden smelled.</l>
          <l>A garland of the rose; and a white pair</l>
          <l>Of doves about her flickered in the air;</l>
          <l>There her son Cupid stood before her feet,</l>
          <l>Two wings upon his shoulders, fair and fleet;</l>
          <l>And blind as night, as he is often seen,</l>
          <l>A bow he bare, and arrows bright and keen.</l>
          <l>No goddess she, commissioned to the field,</l>
          <l>Like Pallas, dreadful with her sable shield,</l>
          <l>Or fierce Bellona thundering at the wall,</l>
          <l>While flames ascend, and mighty ruins fall.</l>
          <l>To the soft Cyprian shores she graceful moves.</l>
          <l>To visit Paphos and her blooming groves;</l>
          <l>While to her power a hundred altars rise,</l>
          <l>And grateful incense meets the balmy skies.</l>
        </quote>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Venus.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 65.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Venus</hi> was the personification of female beauty The poets represented her as having- sprung from the foam of the sea. She first appeared upon the surface of the waves in a sea-shell, and was gently wafted to the foot of mount Cythera, and when she set her feet upon the land, flowers sprung up beneath them. The <hi rend="i">rosy Hours</hi>, who were intrusted with her education, received her, and conducted her to heaven.</p>
        <p>The Romans sometimes called Venus, Cythera, from the island to which she was borne, and sometimes she was called Dione. Her favourite residence was in the island of Cyprus, where she was worshipped at the city of Paphos. Venus, from her vivacity and happy disposition, is often styled the <hi rend="i">laughter-loving</hi> goddess. That she was intrusted to the Hours and conveyed by them to heaven, only signifies that she passed her time happily:</p>
        <quote>
          <l>            Young Dione, nursed beneath the waves,</l>
          <l>And rocked by Nereids in their coral caves, Charmed the <hi rend="i">blue</hi><note place="bottom">The Nereids were represented in the mythology to have blue hair.
            <author key="Milton">Milton</author> says,
            <quote>“blue-haired deit’es.”</quote> See <hi rend="i">Comus</hi>.</note><hi rend="i"> sisterhood</hi> with playful wiles,</l>
          <l>Lisped her sweet tones, and tried her tender smiles.</l>
          <l>    Then, on her beryl throne, by Tritons borne,</l>
          <l>Bright rose the goddess like the star of morn.</l>
          <l>With rosy fingers, as uncurled they hung</l>
          <l>Round her fair brow, her golden locks she wrung;</l>
          <l>O’er the smooth surge in silver sandals stood,</l>
          <l>And looked enchantment on the dazzled flood.</l>
          <l>    The bright drops rolling from her lifted arras,</l>
          <l>In slow meanders wander o’er her charms,</l>
          <l>See round her snowy neck their lucid track,</l>
          <l>Pearl her white shoulders, gem her ivory back,</l>
          <l>Round her fine waist and swelling bosom swim,</l>
          <l>And star with glittering brine each crystal limb.</l>
          <l>— And beauty blazed to heaven and earth unveiled.</l>
          <bibl><title>Botanic Garden</title>.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <p>She is often represented in her sea-shell sporting upon the ocean, the sea-nymphs, called Nereides, and dolphins, and Cupids, surrounding her. When she ascended to heaven her chariot was drawn by doves and swans, accompanied by Cupid and the Graces. She guided her doves by a golden chain She was clothed in slight and graceful apparel, bound round the waist by a girdle called the <hi rend="i">cestus</hi>. The cestus was supposed to make Venus a thousand times more graceful and beautiful than she was without it.</p>
        <p>The temples of Venus were numerous in the heathen world; those of Paphos, Cythera, and Idalia were the most celebrated. In some places incense only was offered to this goddess. The dove and the swan, the rose and the myrtle, the most graceful of birds, and the sweetest and most odorous of plants, were sacred to Venus.</p>
        <p>In ancient times the Greeks regarded fine hair as the greatest natural ornament of the female sex. The ladies preserved their hair carefully, and arranged it in a very tasteful and becoming manner; they often consecrated it to Venus.</p>
        <p>Some instances are related of beautiful ladies who had grown old, and no longer could take pleasure in the reflection of their own faces, who would send the mirror they had been accustomed to use, and hang it up in the temple of Venus, as if they had said. Time has robbed me of my beauty; I only see in this mirror that I am no longer young; I will bestow it upon her whose beauty never fades, and whose youth is immortal.</p>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Adonis.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Adonis</hi> was a beautiful youth, and beloved by Venus. His favourite occupation was hunting Venus often cautioned him against exposing his life to the violence of wild beasts, but he did not attend to her counsels, and died of the wound which a wild boar whom he pursued gave him.</p>
        <p>Venus mourned him excessively, and transformed him to the flower called Anemone, or wind-flower. Proserpine offered to restore him to life if he would spend half the year with her in the infernal regions. This fable has the same meaning with that of Proserpine herself. Proserpine spent half the year with her mother on earth, and the other half with Pluto in hell. These allegories signify that the seeds and roots of plants are interred beneath the soil in winter, and rise to the light and adorn the earth in summer.</p>
        <p>The feasts of Adonis were celebrated in Greece and Syria. They commenced with mourning for his death, and concluded with expressions of joy for their renovation. The Syrians called Adonis, Thammuz. The prophet Ezekiel reproves the idolatrous women for weeping for Thammuz; that is, for joining in the funeral procession with which the Syrians celebrated his memory.</p>
        <quote>
          <l>           On Lebanon’s sequestered height</l>
          <l>The fair Adonis left the realms of light,</l>
          <l>Bowed his bright locks, and, fated from his birth</l>
          <l>To change eternal, mingled with the earth;</l>
          <l>With darker horror shook the conscious wood,</l>
          <l>Groaned the sad gales, and rivers blushed with blood.</l>
          <l>And <hi rend="i">Beauty’s goddess</hi> bending o’er his bier,</l>
          <l>Breathed the soft sigh, and poured the tender tear.</l>
          <l>Admiring <hi rend="i">Proserpine</hi>, through dusky glades,</l>
          <l>Led the fair phantom to Elysian shades.</l>
          <l>Clad with new form, with finer sense combined,</l>
          <l>And fit with purer flame the ethereal mind.</l>
          <l>         Erewhile emerging from infernal night,</l>
          <l>The youth immortal rises to the light,</l>
          <l>Leaves the drear chambers of the insatiate tomb,</l>
          <l>And shines and charms with renovated bloom.</l>
          <bibl><title>Botanic Garden</title>, Canto II.</bibl>
        </quote>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>In what verses are Venus and Cupid described?</p>
          <p>What did Venus personify?</p>
          <p>What were the appellations of Venus?</p>
          <p>In what verses is her rising from the sea described?</p>
          <p>Where, and how was Venus worshipped?</p>
          <p>What personal ornament did the Greek ladies particularly value?</p>
          <p>What use did the Greek ladies sometimes make of a mirror?</p>
          <p>What is the story of Adonis?</p>
          <p>In what verses is Adonis described?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Cupid.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Cupid</hi> was the son of Venus, and was the emblem of <hi rend="i">love</hi>. He was generally painted as a beautiful winged boy, with a bow and arrows, and very often with a bandage over his eyes.</p>
        <p>Ancient statues sometimes represent him bestriding the back of a lion, and playing on a lyre, whilst the fierce savage, turning his head, seems to listen to its harmonious chords.</p>
        <p>Sometimes he appears mounted on a dolphin; and sometimes he is represented as breaking the winged thunderbolt of Jove. He was the son of Venus; his wife was Psyche — a Greek word, signifying spirit, or soul.</p>
        <p>The love of Cupid for Psyche was an allegory intended to show that all true affection is towards the mind. The most beautiful object in nature without <hi rend="i">life</hi> cannot be loved. The gift of life to an intelligent being is only of value according to the degree of understanding, sensibility, and goodness which he possesses. We can only be beloved by the intelligent and good, according to the goodness, the ability, and the generous sympathies of our nature.</p>
        <figure>
          <graphic url="http://obvil.github.io/mythographie/images/robbins_elements-of-mythology_1860_073.png"/>
        </figure>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>The Graces.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">The</hi> Graces were three beautiful females, daughters of Venus, and often attendant upon her. The Graces were supposed to be beautiful and amiable, and to represent the sweetness, civility, and purity which are proper to delicate, elegant, and accomplished persons.</p>
        <p>The names of the Graces were Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne; they are usually represented in a group, naked, and adorned with flowers on their heads. The <hi rend="i">Graces</hi>, properly Charities or Virtues, were represented hand in hand, to show that virtues, though different, belong to each other, and that they are not found single but united. The Graces were <hi rend="i">beautiful</hi> to signify that kind affections and good actions are pleasing and winning. They were exhibited unadorned and unclothed, because gentleness of manners and kindness of heart are sufficient, without disguise or art, to gain good will.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Cupid?</p>
          <p>What is signified by the story of Cupid and Psyche?</p>
          <p>What were the Graces, and what were their attributes?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>Diana.</head>
        <p><hi rend="i">See plate, page</hi> 73.</p>
        <p><hi rend="sc">Diana</hi> was the twin sister of Apollo. Juno, being offended at Latona, drove her from heaven, and forbade the earth to afford her an asylum. Old Ocean was more compassionate. Neptune, in pity of her desolate condition, raised the island of Delos from the Egean sea, and gave it to Latona. In Delos, Apollo and Diana were born. The Greeks held Delos in reverence as the birthplace of these divinities. Apollo and Diana are commonly regarded as representatives of the sun and moon.</p>
        <p>The Egyptians called her Isis. Among the Greeks Diana or Phebe was honoured under three different characters, as a goddess of heaven, earth, and hell, and was therefore called the triform goddess. As a celestial divinity she was Luna, the Moon; as a terrestrial goddess, Diana; and in the infernal regions, Hecate.</p>
        <p>Diana was the goddess of chastity, of the chase, and of woods. In <hi rend="i">heaven</hi>, she was supposed to enlighten by her rays; on <hi rend="i">earth</hi>, to restrain the wild animals by her bow and dart; and in the <hi rend="i">realms below</hi>, to keep in awe the shadowy multitudes of ghosts.</p>
        <p>Diana was represented under the figure of a very tall and beautiful young virgin, in a hunting dress; a bow in her hand, a quiver of arrows suspended across her shoulders, and her forehead ornamented with a silver crescent. Sometimes she appears in a chariot of silver, drawn by hinds.</p>
        <p>Diana had two temples famous in history. The first was that of Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the world. This was burnt to the ground the very day on which Alexander the Great was born. A man named Erostratus, wishing to make his name immortal, set fire to this magnificent temple, imagining that such an action would necessarily transmit his name to posterity.</p>
        <p>Diana was worshipped with peculiar reverence at Ephesus. When St. Paul preached the gospel there, the word of God grew mightily and prevailed. A man named Demetrius, who made
          <quote>“silver shrines for Diana,”</quote> that is, little altars and images of the goddess, and models of the great temple, (probably for the embellishment of houses,) being in fear that the goddess would fall into contempt, thus admonished the Ephesians:</p>
        <quote>
          <p>“Not alone at Ephesus, but almost throughout <hi rend="i">all Asia</hi>, (all the Greek cities of Asia,) this Paul hath persuaded and turned away much people, saying, that they be no gods which are made with hands: so that not only this our craft is in danger to be set at naught, but also that the temple of the great goddess Diana should be despised, and her magnificence should be destroyed, whom all Asia and the world worshippeth.”</p>
        </quote>
        <p>The citizens of Ephesus then raised a great clamour against Paul, but one of the town officers, a friend of the old superstition, appeased them, saying, “
          <quote>Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that knoweth not that the city of the Ephesians is a worshipper of the great goddess Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter? Seeing that these things cannot be spoken against, ye ought to be quiet, and to do nothing rashly.”</quote> — <title>Acts</title>, ch. xix.</p>
        <p>From this time, however, the phantoms of Paganism faded before the light of Christianity, and the religion of Paul has been diffused all over the world, while that of the heathens has passed away like a dream of the night.</p>
        <p>The second celebrated temple of Diana was that of Taunica Chersonesus, or the modern Crimea. This was in the ancient Scythia, which comprehended parts of modern Russia and Tartary. The Scythians there worshipped Diana with barbarous rites, offering to her human sacrifices.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who was Diana?</p>
          <p>What were Diana’s several characters?</p>
          <p>What were Diana’s offices?</p>
          <p>How is Diana represented?</p>
          <p>Where was the most celebrated temple of Diana?</p>
          <p>How was the preaching of Paul received at Ephesus?</p>
          <p>What was the admonition of the shrine-maker at Ephesus?</p>
          <p>How were the Ephesians appeased?</p>
          <p>What has taken place in the world in regard to Paganism?</p>
          <p>Where was another temple of Diana?</p>
        </q>
      </div>
      <div>
        <head>The Muses.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">The</hi> Muses are the favourite goddesses of the poets. The ancients used often to begin their verses by <hi rend="i">invoking</hi> the muse, that is, by a short address or prayer to one of the Muses, entreating her to <hi rend="i">inspire</hi> the poet — to give him some portion of celestial intelligence, that his poetry might be worthy of the favour of the goddess, and of the esteem of mankind.</p>
        <p>The Muses were daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, or memory; mistresses of the science, patronesses of poetry and music, companions of Apollo, directresses of the feasts of the gods.</p>
        <p>They are represented as nine beautiful virgins, sometimes dancing in a ring, around Apollo, sometimes playing on various musical instruments, or engaged in scientific pursuits. They are called Muses, from a Greek word, signifying to meditate, to inquire.</p>
        <p>The Muses had each a name derived from some particular accomplishment of mind, or branch of science.</p>
        <p>The first of the Muses, Clio, derives her name from the Greek word, signifying <hi rend="i">glory, renown</hi>. She presided over <hi rend="i">History</hi>. She was supposed to have invented the lyre, which she is <hi rend="i">frequently</hi> depicted as holding in her hand, together with the plectrum, the instrument with which the ancients struck their harp or lyre.</p>
        <p>Thalia presided over <hi rend="i">comedy</hi>. Her name signifies, <hi rend="i">the blooming</hi>. She is represented reclining on a pillar, holding in her hand a mask.</p>
        <p>Melpomene presided over <hi rend="i">tragedy</hi>. She is generally seen with her hand resting upon the club of Hercules; because the object of tragedy was to represent the brilliant actions and the misfortunes of heroes.</p>
        <p>Euterpe was the patroness of <hi rend="i">instrumental music</hi>. Her name signifies <hi rend="i">the agreeable</hi>. She is always depicted as surrounded with various instruments of music.</p>
        <p>Terpsichore, or <hi rend="i">the amusing</hi>, presided over the dance. She has always a smiling countenance: and one foot lightly touching the earth, while the other sports in air.</p>
        <p>Erato. Her name is derived from the Greek word signifying <hi rend="i">love</hi>. She is the inspirer of light poetry, and of the triumphs and complaints of lovers.</p>
        <p>Polyhymnia, whose name signifies <hi rend="i">many songs</hi>, presides over miscellaneous poetry, and the ode.</p>
        <p>Urania, or <hi rend="i">the heavenly</hi>, was esteemed the inventress of <hi rend="i">astronomy</hi>. In her hands she holds a globe, which sometimes appears placed on a tripod, and then she grasps a scale, or a pair of compasses.</p>
        <p>Calliope owes her name to the majesty of her voice. She presided over <hi rend="i">rhetoric</hi> and <hi rend="i">epic poetry</hi>.</p>
        <p>The Muses had favourite haunts in Greece, — the vale of Tempe in Thessaly, Mount Parnassus in Phocis, Pieria in Thrace, the country Aonia, and Mount Helicon in Bœotia. Their fountains were Hippocrene, and Castalia at the foot of Parnassus. Their horse had wings, and was called Pegasus — when Pegasus struck the earth forcibly with his foot the fountain Hippocrene sprung out.</p>
        <p>The Muses are frequently represented surrounding Apollo on Mount Parnassus or Helicon; while Pegasus, with extended wings, springs forward into the air.</p>
        <q type="questions">
          <p>Who were the Muses?</p>
          <p>How were they represented?</p>
          <p>From what were their names derived?</p>
          <p>What was the office of Clio; of Thalia; of Melpomene; of Euterpe; of Terpsichore; of Erato; of Polyhymnia; of Urania; of Calliope?</p>