mythographie/xml/white_students-mythology_1889.xml at gh-pages · OBVIL/mythographie · GitHub

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        <title>The student’s mythology (2<hi rend="sup">e</hi> éd.)</title>
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        <bibl><author>White, Catherine Ann (1825-1878)</author>, <title>The Student’s Mythology: A Compendium of Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec, and Peruvian Mythologies; in Accordance with Standard Authorities; Arranged for the Use of Schools and Academies by C. A. White</title>; <edition>New Edition, Revised and Corrected</edition>, <pubPlace>New York</pubPlace>, <publisher>A. C. Armstrong and Son</publisher>, <date>1889</date>, <biblScope>315 p.</biblScope> [1<hi rend="sup">re</hi> edition: 1882]. Source: <ref target="http://www.archive.org/details/studentsmytholog00whit">Internet Archive</ref>.</bibl>
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      <div>
        <head>Prefatory Note.</head>
        <p><hi rend="sc">The</hi> Student’s Mythology has been in use in manuscript for nearly three years in one of our largest academies, where it has been received with much favor by both teachers and pupils. Even in that form, which subjected them to the inconvenience of long dictations, it was preferred to any of the ordinary text-books on the subject. Copies were sought for the use of other institutions, and the principals of the academy referred to, consented that the work should be prepared for the press.</p>
        <p>In carrying out the plan, the subject matter was carefully classified, and such additions made as were deemed necessary for completeness. As a farther precaution, the whole was submitted to the revision of an eminent classical scholar.</p>
        <p>Mythology is a subject which needs to be treated with peculiar care; and text-books are often objected to by parents and teachers as still retaining the taint of pagan corruption, and presenting dangerous images to the youthful mind. It was this difficulty which first led to the preparation of the present work. The Student’s Mythology lays no claim to any superiority in point of erudition; the text-books already before the public leave nothing to be desired in this particular. It is a practical work, prepared by an experienced teacher, and already submitted to the decisive test of the schoolroom. It is not designed for young persons who are already advanced in classical studies, but rather for pupils who have not yet entered, or who, like the greater number of those attending our female academies, are not likely ever to enter upon any regular classical course. For the former, it may prove a useful introduction to these studies, while the latter will find in the work the most important and pleasing features of mythology.</p>
        <p>With such views, it has been considered most judicious to present the classic fables in their simplest, which is also their most poetic form, giving the allegorical meaning attached to the ancient myths, only where their application is clear and simple. For the same reason the writer has avoided questions of comparative mythology, except in cases where the analogies are too obvious to be passed unnoticed. The work has been compiled with care from reliable sources, and will, perhaps, be found to contain much that is new and interesting; many articles, such as those on the public games, the theatrical entertainments of the Greeks, the Assyrian, Chinese and American mythologies, will be found a pleasing addition, as these subjects have not been treated in the ordinary text-books. The chapter on the “Poets of Classic Fable,” and the “Supplement” containing a notice of the ancient writers whose names occur in the body of the work, will, it is hoped, be found generally useful.</p>
        <p>Among the modern authors to whom the writer has been particularly indebted, we may mention
          <author key="Calmet">Calmet</author>,
          <author key="Anthon">Anthon</author>,
          <author key="Tooke">Tooke</author>,
          <author key="Bulfinch Th.">Bulfinch</author>,
          <author key="Huc">Huc</author> and
          <author key="Schlegel">Schlegel</author>. In preparing the article on Druidism,
          <author key="Martin">Martin</author>’s “<title>Histoire de France</title>,” and the “<title>Monuments Celtiques</title>” of
          <author key="Reynaud">Reynaud</author>, have been consulted, together with the Irish Chroniclers and other standard authorities. The matter of the Mexican and Peruvian mythologies, has been chiefly taken from
          <author key="Clavigero">Clavigero</author> and
          <author key="Prescott">Prescott</author>. Reference has been made throughout to the <title>New American Cyclopædia</title>.</p>
        <p>The work now completed is offered to the public in the hope that it may render the subject of mythology more generally popular in our schools, and obviate the dangers attending this otherwise attractive study.</p>
      </div>
      <div xml:id="Page_14">
        <head>Mythology [Part I].</head>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter I.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Origin of Mythology — Divinities called Celestial.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What is Mythology?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> This word is derived from the Greek, <hi rend="i">Mythos</hi>, a myth or fable, and <hi rend="i">logos</hi>, a discourse. A myth is, properly speaking, an allegory or fable invented to convey some important moral or religious truth, or illustrate some operation of nature. Mythology includes also the historical myths, or the narratives of gods, demigods, and heroes, which were current among the heathen in ancient times.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Why is it necessary to become acquainted with these fables?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Because ancient literature and art cannot be fully understood or appreciated without some knowledge of Mythology. It was mingled with every theme of the classic poet, and inspired the highest skill of the painter and sculptor.</p>
          <p>These subjects keep their place to some extent in modern art, and mythological allusions are so frequent in our literature that an acquaintance with classic fable is considered a necessary part of a liberal education.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Did all the heathen nations worship the same deities?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The mythology of different nations varied as to the names and attributes of their divinities. There are, nevertheless, so many points of resemblance, that it is believed by many that the principal mythical systems had one common origin. To trace these analogies, and the developments which gave rise to so great a diversity, is the province of comparative mythology.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> In what important point do all these systems agree?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> In the rite of sacrifice. We meet everywhere the same offerings: flowers, first fruits, libations of milk, honey, and wine; also sacrifices of animals, which were either partaken of by the votaries or consumed as holocausts upon the altar.</p>
          <p>This mode of worship varied but little in ceremonial, and the sacrifices of the different heathen nations resembled, in their exterior form, those offered to the true God by the ancient patriarchs. The idea of propitiating the deity in such a manner seems to have been universal both in the old and the new world, and we are forced to believe that it was drawn from a common fount of primeval tradition.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How did the belief in the heathen deities originate?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> When the early traditions of the human race became corrupt, the sublime idea of one God, self-existent and eternal, was lost or obscured. We find it, though vaguely perhaps, in the character and attributes of certain divinities, as the Zeus (Jupiter) of the Greek, and the Alfâdur of Scandinavian mythology. There are passages in the early Greek poets which show clearly a belief in the unity of God. In the verses attributed to the mythic poet
            <author key="Orphée">Orpheus</author>, and generally known as <title>Orphic Remains</title>, we find the following:</p>
          <quote>
            <l>“One self-existent lives; created things</l>
            <l>Arise from him; and He is all in all.</l>
            <l>No mortal sight may see Him, yet Himself</l>
            <l>Sees all that live; …………………………</l>
            <l>………………… For He alone</l>
            <l>All heavenly is, and all terrestrial things</l>
            <l>Are wrought by Him. First, midst and last he holds</l>
            <l>With His omniscient grasp.”</l>
          </quote>
          <p>The same idea is expressed in the verses of the poet
            <author key="Aratos">Aratus</author>, quoted by
            <author key="Bible">St. Paul</author> in his <title>address to the Athenians on the Hill of Mars</title>.</p>
          <p>Instead of ministering spirits obeying the will of the Supreme Being, and communicating that will to man, there arose a number of inferior deities, each exercising some peculiar and partial sovereignty. The god whom the warrior invoked in battle was powerless to bless the field he cultivated in time of peace; the power of Jupiter was worshipped in the rolling thunder; but when the earth trembled or fiery torrents burst from the mountain top, the wrath of Pluto must be appeased, and sacrifices were offered to the infernal powers. The strife and turbulence of nature were attributed to the gods, who became in some manner identified with the elements they were supposed to govern.</p>
          <p>The honors paid to the memory of departed heroes assumed, in the course of time, the character of religious worship. Hence arose a class of demigods, whose real achievements, transmitted by popular tradition and embellished by the poets, became altogether legendary and mythical.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Were the Greek and Roman mythologies the same?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were, to a great extent. The ancient Latins had, undoubtedly, their own gods and their peculiar superstitions, but they do not appear to have had any regular mythology. When the Romans received the arts and sciences from the Greeks, they adopted, also, their divinities and their entire system of religion.</p>
          <p>They shared a tradition, which seems to have been universal, of a time of primeval innocence, when man dwelt in a peaceful world, ignorant alike of sorrow and of sin. This was the Golden Age. Avarice and discord were unknown; men had not learned to slay animals for food, nor had the earth been disturbed by the plough. Neither the labors of the husbandman, nor the merchant’s traffic disturbed the joyous leisure of that happy time; no ships ploughed the seas, and the glittering steel rested harmless in the mine.
            <author key="Ovide">Ovid</author> thus describes the days of innocence:</p>
          <quote>
            <l>“The Golden Age was first, when man, yet new,</l>
            <l>No rule but uncorrupted reason knew,</l>
            <l>And, with a native bent did good pursue.</l>
            <l>Unforced by punishment, unawed by fear,</l>
            <l>His words were simple, and his soul sincere;</l>
            <l>Needless was written law where none oppressed;</l>
            <l>The law of man was written in his breast:</l>
            <l>No suppliant crowds before the judge appeared,</l>
            <l>No court erected yet, nor cause was heard,</l>
            <l>But all was safe; for conscience was their guard.</l>
            <l>………………………………………………………</l>
            <l>No walls were yet, nor fence, nor moat, nor mound,</l>
            <l>Nor drum was heard, nor trumpet’s angry sound,</l>
            <l>Nor swords were forged; but, void of care and crime,</l>
            <l>The soft creation slept away their time.”</l>
          </quote>
          <p>The Silver Age was far inferior to that of gold; but virtue still dwelt on earth, and the Immortals had not altogether departed from the abodes of men. Jupiter then divided the year into seasons, shortened the winter days, and let loose the northern blasts, so that men were obliged to build dwellings, and cultivate the ungrateful soil.</p>
          <p>Their first habitations were caves and grottoes, leafy coverts of the forest, or huts rudely constructed of the trunks of trees and interwoven boughs.</p>
          <p>The Brazen Age came next; men grew fierce and warlike, but were not as yet altogether impious.</p>
          <p>The Iron Age gave birth to all the calamities that afflict mankind. Avarice and violence reigned supreme; men were not satisfied to till the earth, but dug into its hidden mines, and drew thence gold and iron, potent instruments of ill to man.</p>
          <p>The same poet says:</p>
          <quote>
            <l>“Then land-marks limited to each his right;</l>
            <l>For all before was common as the light.</l>
            <l>Nor was the ground alone required to bear</l>
            <l>Her annual income to the crooked share,</l>
            <l>But greedy mortals, rummaging her store,</l>
            <l>Digged from her entrails first the precious ore</l>
            <l>(Which next to hell the prudent gods had laid,)</l>
            <l>And that alluring ill to sight displayed.</l>
            <l>Thus cursed steel, and more accursed gold,</l>
            <l>Gave mischief birth, and made that mischief bold:</l>
            <l>And double death did wretched man invade,</l>
            <l>By steel assaulted, and by gold betrayed.”</l>
            <bibl>
              <author key="Dryden J.">Dryden</author>’s
              <author key="Ovide">Ovid</author>.</bibl>
          </quote>
          <div>
            <head>Mount Olympus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Where were the gods supposed to dwell?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> On the summit of Mount Olympus, in Thessaly. This mountain hides its head, covered with perpetual snows, in a belt of clouds. The Greeks imagined above these, a sublime abode reposing in eternal sunshine, and free from the storms which vexed the lower world. A gate of clouds, guarded by the goddesses of the seasons, opened to permit the passage of the Celestials when they descended to earth. Each god had his own dwelling, but all were obliged to repair, when summoned, to the palace of Jupiter. Even those deities whose usual abode was on the earth, in the waters, or in the lower shades, were compelled to assemble in Olympus at his command. Here they feasted on ambrosia and nectar, discoursed upon the affairs of heaven and earth, and were delighted at intervals by the music of Apollo’s lyre, and the songs of the Muses.</p>
            <p>Vulcan was smith, architect and chariot builder to the gods. He built their dwellings on Olympus, and constructed the furniture in so wonderful a manner, that the tripods and tables were endowed with motion, and ranged themselves in order without the aid of hands. The robes of the different divinities were wrought by Minerva and the Graces. Everything of a solid nature was constructed of metal.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>The Gods — Different Classes of Deities.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Did the Greeks believe that the gods resembled men?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Yes; in many particulars. They supposed them to have the same passions, both good and evil. They were immortal, yet could suffer pain and receive wounds. Instead of blood a fluid called ichor filled their veins. The deities resembled men also in form, but they were, with some exceptions, of majestic stature and shone with celestial beauty. They could render themselves invisible at will, and were otherwise endowed with supernatural powers. There was this restraint upon their wonder-working gifts: no divinity was permitted to reverse the act of another. For example, when an offended god subjected a mortal to some cruel transformation, no other deity, not even Jupiter himself, could undo the spell.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Into what classes were the gods divided?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Ancient writers differ in the classification of the Greek and Roman divinities. According to one division, which we will follow, the Celestial gods were: Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury and Bacchus. The goddesses were: Juno, Minerva or Pallas, Venus, Aurora and Latona.</p>
            <p>To these higher divinities, Saturn, Janus, Vesta and others were sometimes added. There were also Terrestrial divinities, Gods of the Sea, Infernal deities, etc. etc.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter II. <lb/>Greek and Roman Divinities. <lb/>Celestial Gods. <lb/>Jupiter, (<hi rend="sc">Greek</hi>, <hi rend="i">Zeus</hi>.)</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Greek and Roman Divinities — Jupiter — Juno — How represented — Parentage and Actions — Probable Origin of these Fables — Adventures of Jupiter — Story of Europa — Search of Cadmus — Punishment of Lycaon.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Jupiter?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the king and father of gods and men. He is generally represented as a majestic man with a beard, sitting on a throne of gold and ivory. He brandishes the thunder in his right hand; giants lie prostrate under his feet, and an eagle stands at his side. Jupiter is sometimes called Jove, and as the eagle was sacred to him, it is often called the bird of Jove.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the story of Dionysius [Diony′sius] and Jupiter’s cloak.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The statues of this god were sometimes decorated with much magnificence. It is related that Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, visited a temple in Sicily, where he saw a statue of Jupiter arrayed in a mantle of wrought gold. This he took possession of, and ordered in its place a woolen cloak. Dionysius justified the act on the plea that the latter garment would be more comfortable for the god at all seasons, as it was neither so heavy in summer, nor so cold in winter.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Of whom was Jupiter the son?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Saturn and Ops. According to the fable, Saturn promised his brother Titan, that after his death, the latter should succeed him in his kingdom. To ensure this, Titan made Saturn promise farther to destroy all his male children. In fulfillment of this engagement, Saturn devoured them as soon as they were born. Ops, or Rhea, his wife, succeeded in concealing Jupiter from him. She sent him secretly to Crete where he was educated on Mount Ida, by the nymphs, or, according to some, by the priestesses of Cybele [Cyb′ele]. The goat which suckled him was placed afterwards amongst the constellations. Ops saved Neptune and Pluto in the same manner.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were Jupiter’s first exploits?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Titan was so much enraged against Saturn for failing to destroy all his male children, that he assembled the giants, generally called Titans, to avenge the injury. They overcame Saturn, and bound him with Ops, or Rhea, in hell. Jupiter conquered the Titans, and delivered his father and mother. He afterwards took up arms against Saturn himself, whom he overcame and banished. He then shared his power with his two brothers, Neptune and Pluto; to Neptune he gave the command of the seas and rivers, while Pluto received for his portion the subterranean world, or infernal regions.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What natural phenomena were attributed to Jupiter?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Thunder, lightning, rain, clouds, snow, and rainbows. These were sent by Jupiter either as signs or warnings, or else to punish the transgressions of men, particularly the perversion of law and justice. It seems certain that the ancients regarded Jupiter as a righteous power, the enemy of tyrants, and the protector of the poor and innocent. It is hard to reconcile this character with the fables which ascribe to this god actions in the last degree base and criminal.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How would you explain this seeming contradiction?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Many of these stories were simply allegories, illustrating the dominion of Jupiter over the natural world. Others were invented at later times; and all were embellished by the poets with but little regard for moral or religious sentiment. Whatever their origin, there can be no doubt that they had an unfavorable influence on the pagan world, and that they contributed to weaken whatever respect remained for public or private virtue.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate some of these fables.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Jupiter was married to Juno, to whom he first appeared in the form of a crow. He constantly excited her jealousy by his admiration of mortal women, and this gave rise to many adventures, celebrated by the poets.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the story of Europa [Euro′pa]?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Jupiter was struck by the beauty of Europa, daughter of Agenor [Age′nor], king of Phœnicia. He took the form of a snow-white bull, and mingled with the herd that grazed in the meadow where the young princess was gathering flowers. Europa, attracted by the beauty and gentleness of the animal, caressed him, crowned him with flowers, and at length fearlessly mounted on his back. He immediately plunged into the sea, and carried her to the unknown shores of Europe, which was named from her.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> On what was the story of Europa probably founded?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It is probable that some sea captain, or pirate, was attracted by the beauty of the young princess, and carried her off. When her father grieved at her loss, the courtiers, and perhaps the oracles, pretended that it was a god who had taken her away. As this report was flattering to his pride, he would of course be pleased to hear it everywhere repeated. This, however, did not prevent Agenor from making every effort to recover his lost child.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the story of Cadmus.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Cadmus, the son of Agenor, was ordered by his father to go in search of his sister Europa, with the further injunction, that he should never return to his native land without her. The search proved fruitless, and Cadmus, not daring to appear before his father, went to consult the oracle of Apollo as to what he should do. He was directed by the god to follow a young heifer, which he would meet in the fields, and to mark the place where she should lie down to rest. He was to build a city on that spot, and call the surrounding country Bœotia. Cadmus obeyed these instructions; while preparing to offer sacrifice to Jupiter on the site of his intended town, the solemnity was interrupted by a terrible event. The attendants of Cadmus, in searching for water, had entered a grove sacred to Mars, which was guarded by a mighty dragon. On perceiving him, they turned to fly, but were either crushed in the serpent’s folds, or suffocated by blasts of the monster’s fiery breath. Cadmus, awaiting their return, and becoming impatient at the delay, proceeded to the spot, and found his servants lifeless, while the dragon was basking at his ease upon the grass. The hero, aroused to vengeance, attacked the monster. A terrible combat ensued, in which Cadmus, through the assistance of Minerva, was victorious. As he gazed upon his expiring foe, he heard a frightful voice which threatened him with the vengeance of the god whose grove he had desecrated. Cadmus was at first dismayed, but Minerva told him to sow the dragon’s teeth in the ground, and await the result. Where the teeth were planted, armed men immediately sprung up. Cadmus threw a stone among them, upon which they turned their weapons against one another, and continued to fight until all were killed except five. These assisted the hero in building his city.</p>
          <p>Cadmus married Hermione [Hermi′one], the daughter of Venus; they had four daughters, all of whom suffered persecution, either in their own persons, or in those of their children. Cadmus and Hermione were so much afflicted by the misfortunes of their descendants, that they petitioned the gods to deprive them of life. They were soon after changed into serpents.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the punishment of Lycaon [Lyca′on].</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> During the Iron Age the wickedness of men had grown to such a height that Jupiter resolved to satisfy himself of the truth of the reports that reached him. For this purpose he descended to earth, and assuming the disguise of a poor traveller, sought hospitality of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. The impious prince had just received an ambassador from the Molossians. He ordered him to be slain, and his flesh to be served for the entertainment of his guest. Jupiter was seized with indignation; he overturned the tables, destroyed the palace with lightning, and when the tyrant strove to fly, he was transformed into a savage wolf.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter III. <lb/>Phœbus — Apollo.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Apollo — His Parentage And Exploits — How Represented — Story Of Æsculapius — Banishment Of Apollo From Heaven — Transformation Of Hyacinthus And Cyparissus — Story Of Admetus And Alcestis — Attributes Of Apollo — Punishment Inflicted On Marsyas And On King Midas — Story Of Midas — Death Of Phæton — Transformation Of Daphne — Things Sacred To Apollo.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Apollo?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Jupiter and Latona [Lato′na]. This god was, with his twin-sister Diana, born at Delos, an island in which Latona had taken refuge from the anger of Juno. This goddess, jealous of Latona, sent the serpent Python to destroy her. One of the first exploits of Apollo was to kill the Python with his arrows.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is this god generally represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a young man, comely and graceful. He wears a laurel crown over his flowing hair; his garments are embroidered with gold; in his right hand he carries his bow, and bears on his shoulder a quiver filled with arrows. Apollo and his sister Diana presided respectively over the sun and moon. The sun is often called Phœbus, or Apollo, and in ancient pictures the head of the god is represented as darting rays. Apollo, like other divinities, had many names.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the cause of Apollo’s being driven from heaven?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He had a son named Æsculapius, who was so skilled in medicine that he was even able to restore the dead to life. Hippolytus [Hippol′ytus], son of Theseus, king of Athens, was killed by sea-monsters. Æsculapius, by bringing him to life, so offended Jupiter that the latter killed him with a thunderbolt. Apollo was much grieved, and, as he could not take revenge on Jupiter, he killed the Cyclops who forged the thunderbolts. For this reason Jupiter banished Apollo from heaven.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How did he occupy himself in his banishment?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He guarded the flocks of Admetus, king of Thessaly. Here he had the misfortune accidentally to kill Hyacinthus, a boy to whom he was much attached. Apollo mourned deeply for the youth, and caused a flower to spring from his blood, which is called the hyacinth. Cyparissus [Cyparis′sus] was also beloved by the god. The boy grieved so deeply at having unintentionally killed a favorite deer, that he begged Apollo to make his mourning perpetual. The god heard his prayer and changed him to a cypress, the branches of which tree were always used at funerals. After many adventures and wanderings, Apollo was restored to the favor of Jupiter, and to heaven.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What favor did Apollo confer on King Admetus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He obtained from the Fates, that when Admetus should be about to end his existence, his life might be prolonged, provided another died willingly in his stead. When the fatal day came, Alcestis, the wife of Admetus, devoted herself to death for her husband. Admetus grieved so deeply at her loss that Proserpine [Proser′pine] actually relented, but Pluto remained inexorable. Hercules, however, descended to the shades, and rescued Alcestis, who was restored to her husband. Euripides has founded one of his most beautiful tragedies upon this story.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Over what sciences did Apollo preside?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He presided over physic, music, poetry, and rhetoric; and the nine Muses were subject to him. He regulated the day by guiding the chariot of the sun.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What else is said of Apollo?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Many absurd and impossible adventures are told. He seems to have been very vain of his musical skill, as we see from the punishment he inflicted on Marsyas [Mar′syas], and King Midas for coming in conflict with him on that point.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate these stories.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Apollo was challenged by Marsyas to a contest in music. The god was not content with defeating the presumptuous musician, but flayed him alive, and afterwards changed him into a river, which is still known by his name.</p>
          <p>The punishment inflicted on King Midas was not so cruel. This prince had the bad taste to declare his preference for the vulgar music of Pan, in a contest which that god had with Apollo. The insulted deity caused his ears to grow in length and shape like those of an ass. Midas endeavored to cover the deformity by his hair, and since it was impossible to conceal it from his barber, he bound him to silence by great promises. This man, however, found it so painful to keep the secret to himself, that to obtain relief, he dug a little hole in the ground, and whispered it to the earth. What was his dismay at hearing the hollow reeds which grew upon the spot, whispering, whenever the wind blew: “King Midas has asses’ ears!”</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Is anything else related of King Midas?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Yes; he had kindly and hospitably entertained Silenus, the preceptor of Bacchus, and in return, the god bade him choose any recompense he pleased. Midas demanded that whatever he should touch might be turned into gold. This prayer was granted, and he was at first overjoyed to see plants, stones and all around him transformed into glittering metal. He soon perceived his folly, however, for when, pressed by hunger, he tried to partake of the food placed before him, it was suddenly converted into gold, and when he would have quenched his thirst, the water was changed into a golden stream. Famished in the midst of plenty, Midas prayed the god to withdraw the fatal gift. Bacchus kindly consented, and ordered him to bathe in the river Pactolus [Pac′tolus]. Midas obeyed, but the virtue which left his body was communicated to the waters of the stream, which was famous ever after for its golden sands.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Phæton?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Phœbus and Clymene [Clym′ene]. At the earnest solicitation of his mother, he repaired to the palace of the Sun for the purpose of having his parentage publicly acknowledged. The youth was kindly received, and Apollo swore by the Styx to grant him any favor he should ask. Phæton immediately prayed that he might be allowed to drive, for one day only, the chariot of the Sun. Apollo tried to dissuade him from his foolish wish, but in vain. The rash youth was not able to control the fiery horses of the Sun; they departed from their usual track, and heaven and earth were threatened with one universal conflagration. Jupiter perceived the danger, and struck Phæton with a thunderbolt. His body was hurled into the river Po, where it was found and buried by the nymphs of the place. As his sisters were weeping around his tomb, they were changed by Jupiter into poplars.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Daphne?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> A nymph beloved by Apollo: she was changed into a laurel while she was flying from the pursuit of the god.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What things were especially sacred to Apollo?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Among plants, the laurel; among animals, the wolf; and among birds, the hawk, the crow, and the swan were sacred to this god.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter IV. <lb/>Mars — Ares.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Mars (Ares) — His Parentage — How represented — Animals Sacred to Mars — Names given to Mars — His Temple — Priests called Salii.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Mars?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was worshipped as the god of war.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was he represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a warrior in splendid armor, standing in a chariot driven by Bellona [Bello′na], a distracted woman, who holds a torch in her hand. Mars is fierce in aspect and brandishes a spear. Sometimes Discord is represented going before him in tattered garments, while Anger and Clamor follow in his train. Fear and Terror are the horses which draw the chariot.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What animals were sacred to Mars?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The dog, on account of its sagacity in the pursuit of prey; the horse, for its uses in war; the wolf, for its rapacity and cruelty; the raven, because it follows armies, watching for the carcasses of the slain; and the cock, as an emblem of the vigilance which guards against surprise.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What other names had Mars?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was called Quirinus [Quiri′nus] when he was quiet, Gradivus [Gradi′vus] when he was raging; therefore the Romans built him two temples, one to Mars Quirinus within the walls, that he might keep the city in peace; and one without, to Mars Gradivus, that he might defend them against their enemies. Among the Romans, priests called Salii attended to the sacrifices of Mars, and on festival days went about the city dancing with their shields. Their name comes from the Latin word “to dance,” and was considered appropriate, because Mars is inconstant in his temper, and inclines now to this side, now to that, in time of war. Except the story of his attachment to Venus, the poets relate but little of Mars.</p>
          <p>Bellona, the goddess of war, was, according to some, the sister of Mars. She is generally represented as above, but some poets have described her as rushing through the ranks of war, waving a flaming torch, and exciting the combatants by her cries. The temple of Bellona at Rome, was without the city, near the Carmental gate. Here the Senate gave audience to such ambassadors as they were not willing to admit within the walls. A pillar stood before the temple, over which the herald cast a spear when he proclaimed war. The priests of Bellona, when officiating, held naked swords, with which they gashed their arms and shoulders, making libations of their own blood, to the terrible goddess.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter V. <lb/>Mercury — Hermes.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Mercury (Hermes) — His Parentage — How represented — Offices of Mercury — Benefits conferred by Mercury on Man — Why considered the Patron of Thieves — Story of Io and Argus.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Mercury?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Jupiter and Maia [Ma′ia], the daughter of Atlas. On his mother’s account, sacrifices were generally offered to him during the month of May.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Mercury represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a young man of cheerful countenance, having wings fixed to his helmet and his sandals, and carrying a rod in his hand, which is also winged, and entwined with serpents.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How are these different equipments named?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The rod was called Caduceus [Cadu′ceus], and possessed a wonderful faculty for quieting all disputes. His helmet was called Petasus [Pet′asus], and his winged sandals Talaria.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the offices of Mercury?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were various; his most important function was to carry the commands of Jupiter. Mercury is commonly called the messenger of the gods. He also swept the room where the gods supped, and made their beds.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What else is said of Mercury?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the inventor of letters, and excelled in eloquence. The Greeks worshipped him as the patron of orators, under the name of Hermes. Mercury was also the inventor of weights and measures, and the patron of commerce.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Were all his talents equally honorable?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> No; he was most skillful in the art of thieving. On the very day of his birth, he stole some cattle from King Admetus, although Apollo was keeping them; and while that god was bending his bow against him, he contrived to steal his quiver. While yet an infant, he stole the tools of Vulcan, the girdle of Venus, and the sceptre of Jupiter. He intended also to steal Jove’s thunderbolts, but was fearful they would burn him. Mercury was, therefore, the patron of thieves.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the history of Io and Argus.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Io, the daughter of Inachus [In′achus], was beloved by Jupiter. He strove to hide her from the anger of Juno by transforming her into a cow. The goddess suspected the deceit, and begged the beautiful heifer as a gift. Jupiter was afraid to refuse, and Juno consigned the unhappy Io to the guardianship of Argus. Escape seemed hopeless, as Argus had a hundred eyes, of which he closed only two in sleep, while the others watched. Jupiter commanded Mercury to slay Argus and deliver Io. To effect this, it was necessary to set all his eyes to sleep. Mercury disguised himself as a shepherd, entered into conversation with Argus, and at length played so sweetly on his pipe, that, one by one, the keeper’s hundred eyes were closed. The god then drew his falchion, and cut off the head of Argus with a single blow. Juno was grieved for her servant, and placed his eyes in her peacock’s tail. Io, still persecuted by Juno, wandered over the earth, and at length arrived, faint and weary, on the banks of the Nile. There she prayed Jupiter either to restore her to her original form, or to terminate her misfortunes by death. Juno was touched with compassion, and allowed Jupiter to grant her request. Io was restored to human form, and married to Osiris, king of Egypt; she was afterwards worshipped in that country under the name of Isis.</p>
          <p>The statues of Mercury were simply wooden posts, surmounted by a rude head with a pointed beard. They were set up in the fields, and at all cross roads. The Greeks had pillars of stone, which they called Hermæ, but the head which surmounted them was not always that of Mercury. These pillars were sometimes placed, by the Athenians, at the entrances of their houses as a protection against thieves. On one occasion, all the Hermæ in Athens were mutilated in the same night. Alcibiades was accused of this sacrilege, and was obliged to take refuge in Cergos from the indignation of the people.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter VI. <lb/>Bacchus — Dionysus.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Bacchus (Dionysus) — Parentage of the God — How represented — Story of Semele — Infancy of Bacchus — Transformation of Nymphs into Stars — Silenus — How represented — Exploits of Bacchus — How worshipped — Plants Sacred to the God — Bacchanalia or Orgia — Story of Pentheus — Punishment inflicted on Alcithoe and her Sisters — Transformation of Mariners into Dolphins.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Bacchus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Jupiter and Semele [Sem′ele] and was worshipped as the god of wine.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is he represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a young man, crowned with ivy and grape leaves; he sits in a chariot, drawn sometimes by panthers and lynxes, and sometimes by tigers and lions. He carries in his hand a thyrsus — that is, a staff encircled by ivy and grape leaves; a troop of demons and drunken satyrs follow him.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the story of Semele?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was destroyed by the jealousy of Juno. This goddess visited Semele in the shape of an old woman, and persuaded her to ask Jupiter to visit her with all the glory which encompassed him in heaven. All happened as Juno desired, and Semele was consumed by the lightnings which surrounded Jupiter. Bacchus did not share his mother’s fate, but was conveyed to Naxos, where he was educated by some nymphs.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How did Bacchus reward their care?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He transformed them into the stars known as the Hyades.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who aided the nymphs in their care of Bacchus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> An old man named Silenus. He was considered a demi-god.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Silenus represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He seems to be the personification of drunkenness; he is sometimes represented as seated intoxicated on a cask of wine, his head crowned with grape leaves, and his face stained with the lees of wine; sometimes as mounted on an ass, and following the car of Bacchus.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the first exploits of Bacchus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He distinguished himself in the combats between the gods and giants, taking the form of a lion to strike terror into the latter.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What other actions are attributed to him?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He taught men how to plant the vine and till the ground. He is said to have subdued India, and many other countries of the East.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was he worshipped?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The goat and the hog were offered to him in sacrifice; and the ivy, the fir, the bindweed, the fig and the vine were consecrated to him.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What feasts were held in his honor?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The feasts of Bacchus were various. The Bacchanalia or Orgia were the most celebrated. They were at first participated in by women only but afterwards men were admitted to join in these rites. The women were called Bacchantes, and ran about with their hair dishevelled, shouting and singing in a distracted manner. The Roman Senate at length abolished this festival.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the story of Pentheus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Pentheus was king of Thebes. He not only refused to acknowledge the divinity of Bacchus, but endeavored to prevent the celebration of his orgies. Having presumed to intrude on the revels of the Bacchantes, they were seized by a sort of madness, and rushing upon the unhappy man, tore him to pieces. The mother of Pentheus, and her sisters, were the leaders in this act, which was considered to have been performed under a divine impulse.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the punishment inflicted on Alcithoe [Alcitho′e] and her sisters?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> These were Theban maidens who ridiculed the orgies of Bacchus. During the celebration of these rites, they remained at home, plying the distaff and the spindle, and singing over their tasks. For this, Alcithoe and her sisters were transformed by the power of Bacchus into bats; and the spindle and yarn with which they worked were changed to ivy.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the transformation of mariners into dolphins?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> A ship touched at Chios for a supply of fresh water. The sailors who went on shore, found near the spring a boy of uncommon grace and beauty. They bore him to the ship, still heavy with sleep and wine, and declared their intention of selling him at the next port. Acœtes [Acœ′tes], their captain, tried to dissuade them from the crime, the more so, as he perceived that there was something more than mortal about the captive youth. In the meantime Bacchus, for it was he, awaking from his slumber, begged the sailors to land him at Naxos. This the captain promised, but when they had set sail, the mariners took possession of the ship, and steered in another direction. The god now revealed himself. The sails and cordage suddenly appeared hung with grapes and ivy; spotted panthers lay at his feet, and when the terrified sailors tried to leap overboard, they were suddenly changed into dolphins. The captain was spared, and landed with Bacchus on the shores of Chios.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What is the origin of the history of Bacchus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was probably some prince who taught the people to till the ground, and cultivate the vine. They disgraced his memory in after times by the drunken revels they held in his honor.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter VII. <lb/>Celestial Goddesses. <lb/>Juno — Hera.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Celestial Goddesses — Juno — Hera — Parentage of Juno — How represented — Iris, Messenger of Juno — Children of Juno — Jealousy of the Goddess — Transformation of Callista and Arcas into Bears — Sacrifices offered to the Goddess — Plants held Sacred to her.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Juno?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was both sister and wife of Jupiter.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is she generally represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As seated in a golden chariot drawn by peacocks. She holds a sceptre in her hand, and is crowned with roses and lilies. Iris was the messenger of Juno, as Mercury was of Jupiter.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Iris represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> With wings, because of her swiftness, and sometimes also as riding on a rainbow.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How did Iris differ from Mercury?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Mercury was often employed in messages of peace; but Iris was frequently sent to promote strife and dissension.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What children had Juno?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Vulcan, Mars and Hebe. Hebe was called the goddess of youth, on account of her extraordinary beauty, and Jupiter made her his cup-bearer. She offended him by an unlucky fall, and Ganymede was appointed in her place.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were Juno’s faults?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was very jealous, and took the most cruel revenge on the mortal woman whom Jupiter loved. She transformed Callisto and her son Arcas into bears, and was extremely displeased when Jupiter placed them among the constellations.</p>
          <p>The goddess carried her complaint to Oceanus [Ocean′us], bidding him to observe, when the shades of night should darken the world, how her rival was exalted. The god of Ocean was moved, and promised Juno that he would never receive either Callisto or her offspring in his watery domain. Hence it is, that the Greater and the Lesser Bear continually circle around the pole, and never sink, like the other stars, beneath the waves of Ocean. In the fables of Bacchus and Hercules, Juno displays the same character, extending to these heroes the enmity she bore their mortal mothers.</p>
          <p>Juno was chiefly honored at Argos, Samos and Platæa. The victims offered to her were kine, ewe lambs, and sows. The cow was consecrated to her, and at Argos the priestess of Juno always rode in a chariot drawn by oxen. The sacred plants of the goddess were, the willow, pomegranate, the dittany and the lily. The peacock was chosen as the bird of Juno, because it was supposed by its cry to indicate a change of weather.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter VIII. <lb/>Minerva — Pallas Athena.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Minerva — Pallas Athena — How represented — Origin of the Olive — The Palladium — Minerva, as the Patroness of Female Industry — Story of Arachne — The Bird of Minerva — Story of Medusa’s Head.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Minerva?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the goddess of wisdom and of war. She had no mother, but sprang full armed from the head of Jupiter.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Minerva represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As clothed in complete armor. She has a golden helmet on her head, holds a lance in her right hand, and her left rests upon a shield to which is affixed the head of Medusa. The cock and the owl are also represented on the shield.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Why was Minerva said to have sprung full armed from the head of Jupiter?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The poets signify by this, that wisdom comes direct from the deity.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Why is Minerva sometimes crowned with olive?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Because the olive is the emblem of peace, and war should only be made that a secure peace may follow; also because she bestowed the olive on men.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> On what occasion did Minerva give the olive to men?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> When Cecrops built a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its name; and it was resolved that whichever of the two deities should confer the most useful gift on man, might give a name to the city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse appeared; but Minerva caused an olive to spring out of the earth. The latter was judged the more useful gift; and Minerva named the city, calling it Athena [Athe′na] or Athens, after her own name in Greek.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the Palladium?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> When the Trojans were building the temple and castle of Minerva in Troy, a statue of the goddess fell from heaven into the castle, which was still unroofed. The oracle of Apollo declared that Troy would be safe so long as this statue, called Palladium, from Pallas, a name of Minerva, remained within the walls. When the Greeks besieged Troy, they found that all their efforts to take the city were of no avail; they determined, therefore, to steal the Palladium. Ulysses and Diomedes [Diome′des] crept into the city through the common sewers, and brought away the image. Troy was soon afterwards taken and destroyed. Minerva was a virgin, and was the patroness of modest and virtuous women.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Did Minerva excel only in the art of war?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> No; she invented the distaff and spindle, and excelled in every branch of female industry. The fate of Arachne [Arach′ne] shows how much she prized her reputation for skill in embroidery.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Arachne?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was a maiden of Lydia, who had the presumption to challenge Minerva to a trial of skill in weaving. The goddess wrought into her work the most beautiful designs, but it would seem that Arachne’s performance surpassed hers: for Minerva, seeing it, was fired with envy, and struck the unhappy maiden on the face with her shuttle. Arachne could not endure this insult, and hung herself from a beam. Minerva immediately changed her into a spider, and permitted her to live only that she might weave unceasingly.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Why was the owl chosen as the bird of Minerva?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Because this bird sees in the dark; and wisdom distinguishes what is hidden from common eyes.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What is the story of Medusa’s [Medu′sa] head?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Medusa was one of three sisters, the daughters of Phorcus. These maidens were called Gorgons, and were all immortal, except Medusa. The latter was at one period distinguished for her personal beauty, and particularly for her flowing hair; but having offended Minerva, that goddess changed her locks into serpents, and rendered her appearance so frightful that all who beheld her were changed to stone. The hero Perseus undertook an expedition against the Gorgons, and as he saw the whole country around covered with figures of men and animals changed into stone by the sight of the monster, he was obliged to use great precaution to avoid the same misfortune. He looked, therefore, not at Medusa, but at her reflection in his polished shield, and when he perceived that she was asleep, Minerva guiding his sword, he struck off her head. Mercury had lent Perseus his wings, and as he flew over the Lybian desert bearing Medusa’s head, the blood fell upon the burning sands, and produced the serpents which have ever since infested that region. From the blood of Medusa, also, when her head was cut off, sprang the famous winged horse called Pegasus [Peg′asus]. This wonderful steed flew to Mount Helicon, the residence of the Muses, where, by striking the earth with his foot, he produced the fountain Hippocrene [Hippocre′ne]. All who drank of its waters were inspired by the Muses with a poetic spirit. Perseus went through many other adventures in which Medusa’s head did him good service, by changing his enemies into stone. He afterwards gave the head to Minerva, who fixed it on her shield.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter IX. <lb/>Venus — Aphrodite.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Venus — Aphrodite — Birth and Education of Venus — Marriage with Vulcan — How represented — Temples of Venus — The Graces — Cupid — Festivals of the Goddess — Birds and Plants Sacred to her — Sacrifices — Temple of Venus Calva — The Apple of Discord — Decision of Paris — Story of Hippomenes and Atalanta — Death of Adonis — Origin of the Red Rose — Names of the Graces.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Venus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the goddess of love and beauty. She sprang from the froth of the sea; for this reason the Greeks called her Aphrodite [Aphrodi′te], from Aphros, meaning foam. As soon as she was born, she was placed like a pearl in a shell instead of a cradle, and the god Zephyrus (the west wind) wafted her to the shores of Cyprus.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> By whom was she educated?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was educated and adorned by the Horæ or Hours, who carried her to heaven as soon she became of age. All the gods were astonished at the beauty of Venus, and many demanded her in marriage; but Jupiter betrothed her to Vulcan, an ugly and deformed divinity.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Venus represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Sometimes as a young virgin rising from the sea, or riding on the waves in a shell, while Cupids, Nereids and Dolphins are sporting around her — again, she is pictured as traversing the heavens in an ivory chariot drawn by doves. She wears a wonderful girdle called the Cestus, her doves are harnessed with golden chains, and Cupids flutter around her on silken wings. Venus is always crowned with roses.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was there remarkable in the Cestus of Venus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It had the property of conferring grace, beauty, and irresistible attractions on the wearer.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Where had Venus temples?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> In many places. The most celebrated were at Paphos, Cytherea, Idalia and Cnidos.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the companions of Venus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The Graces were her attendants, and she was generally accompanied by her son Cupid, who was the god of love.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Cupid represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a beautiful boy with wings, carrying a bow and arrows; he has sometimes a band over his eyes to show that love is blind.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What do you say of the festivals of Venus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were various, and accompanied by much that was disgraceful and immoral. The swan, the dove, and the sparrow were sacred to this goddess; and among plants, the rose, the myrtle and the apple. Incense, fruits and flowers were the ordinary sacrifices laid on her altars but birds were sometimes offered.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What remarkable temple was raised to Venus in Rome?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> There was a temple dedicated to Venus Calva, or the Bald; because when the Gauls besieged Rome, the inhabitants made ropes for their military engines with the long hair of the Roman women.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> On what occasion was the prize of beauty adjudged to Venus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> All the gods and goddesses had been invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, Discordia, or Discord being the only one excluded. This goddess was determined to revenge the slight; she entered secretly, when all were assembled, and threw among them a golden apple on which was written: “For the fairest.” A violent quarrel immediately arose between the goddesses, for each believed herself to be the most beautiful. Juno, Minerva, and Venus disputed so eagerly, that Jupiter himself was not able to bring them to an agreement. He resolved, therefore, to refer the matter to the decision of Paris, who was then feeding his sheep on Mount Ida. This prince was the son of Priam, king of Troy. An oracle had foretold before his birth that he was destined to cause the destruction of his native city. He was, therefore, exposed on Mount Ida, where he was found and cared for by some shepherds. After he had grown up, he acquired a great reputation for the prudence with which he settled the most difficult disputes; hence the difference between the goddesses was referred to his decision. When they appeared before him, they began to court his favor with promises. Juno offered him great power; Minerva, wisdom; but Venus promised to give him for a wife the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris then pronounced Venus the fairest. He was soon after acknowledged by his father, King Priam; and Venus fulfilled her engagement by aiding him to carry off Helen, the beautiful wife of Menelaus [Menela′us], king of Sparta. This gave rise to the total destruction of Troy; and the prediction of the oracle with regard to Paris was accomplished.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the story of Hippomenes [Hippo′menes] and Atalanta?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Atalanta was the daughter of King Cœneus, and was equally renowned for her beauty and her swiftness in running. As an oracle had declared that marriage would be fatal to her, she freed herself from the importunity of her suitors by a singular expedient. She caused it to be proclaimed that any one who sought her hand should contend with her in running, with the understanding that she would marry him who should excel her in the race, but that those who were beaten should suffer death. Hard as were these conditions, many suitors presented themselves, but they were all unsuccessful, and were put to death without mercy. Hippomenes determined to undertake the race, but first, he had recourse to Venus. This goddess gave him three golden apples gathered in the garden of the Hesperides [Hesper′ides], and directed him as to their use. When Hippomenes saw that Atalanta was going to outstrip him in the race, he threw down a golden apple; the princess paused to admire and take up the glittering fruit, while Hippomenes passed on. A second and a third time did he try the same expedient, and with such success that he reached the goal and won his bride. Hippomenes was ungrateful to Venus, who revenged herself by changing him into a lion, and the beautiful Atalanta into a lioness.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Adonis?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was a beautiful youth, the son of Cinyras [Cin′yras], king of Cyprus, and was beloved by Venus. He was killed by a wild boar, while hunting with that goddess. Venus grieved much for her favorite. To commemorate his cruel fate she caused the flower anemone to spring from his blood.</p>
          <p>According to the poets, the rose was formerly white. When Venus was hastening to the assistance of Adonis, her foot was wounded by a thorn, and some drops of blood fell upon that flower, which then assumed its present crimson hue.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Graces?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were inferior goddesses, who presided over the banquet, the dance and all social enjoyments and elegant arts.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How many were there?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were three in number. Their names were Euphrosyne [Euphro′syne], Aglaia [Agla′ia] and Thalia. They are represented as beautiful young women, standing in graceful attitudes with their hands joined.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter X. <lb/>Latona — Leto.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Latona — Leto — Her Parentage — Persecution of Juno — Birth of Apollo and Diana — Transformation of Lycian Peasants into Frogs — Punishment of Tityus — Latona a Personification of Night — How represented by Painters and Sculptors.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Latona?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Phœbe and Cœus the Titan. When she was driven from heaven by the jealousy of Juno, she found an asylum in the island of Delos, where she gave birth to Apollo and Diana. Terra (the earth) had promised Juno to give no shelter to her rival, but the island of Delos formerly floated in the sea, and was at that time hidden under the waters. Neptune, pitying the forlorn state of Latona, caused it to emerge from the sea, when it became fixed and immovable for her use.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the transformation of Lycian peasants into frogs.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Latona, while wandering with her babes in the country of Lycia, in Asia, arrived, exhausted by heat and fatigue, on the borders of a clear pool. She was about to quench her thirst in the cool waters, when some clowns rudely hindered her. She begged them to have compassion, and not deny her so small a refreshment; but they mocked her prayers, and when she tried to approach they waded into the pool, and, stirring up the mud, defiled the waters so that it became unfit to drink. The goddess was so much incensed, that she changed the cruel rustics into frogs, and condemned them to dwell forever in the muddy pool.</p>
          <p>The punishment of Niobe will be related in another place. The sufferings of the giant Tityus in hell, were also the penalty of an insult offered to this goddess.</p>
          <p>The Greeks personified Night, under the name of Latona; hence she was said to have been the first wife of Jupiter, the mother of Apollo and Diana, (the sun and moon) and the nurse of the earth and stars. The Egyptians had the same allegory, with a little variation, as, according to them, she was grandmother and nurse of Horus and Bubastis [Bu′bastis], their Apollo and Diana.</p>
          <p>This goddess is generally represented on ancient monuments, as a large and beautiful woman, wearing a veil. In paintings, the veil is always black; in cutting gems, artists sometimes availed themselves of a dark colored vein in the stone, to produce the same effect, and represent the shades of night. The veil is sometimes studded with stars.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XI. <lb/>Aurora — Eos.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Aurora — Eos — Attributes of the Goddess — How represented — Story of Cephalus and Procris — Marriage of Aurora with Tithonus — Transformation of Tithonus — Memnon — His Death and Obsequies — Vocal Statue.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Aurora?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the goddess of the morning and sister of the sun and moon. She is represented as seated in a golden chariot drawn by milk-white horses; her countenance is brilliant, and her fingers are red like roses.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What did this represent?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The beauty of the morning heavens.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the story of Cephalus [Ceph′alus] and Procris.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Cephalus, a beautiful youth, was beloved by Aurora, who carried him with her to heaven; but he regarded the goddess with indifference, and insisted on returning to his young wife Procris. Aurora allowed him to depart, but prevailed on him to visit his house in disguise, that he might judge of the constancy of his bride. Cephalus found his wife lamenting his absence and refusing all consolation, but when she discovered her husband in the supposed stranger, she was so indignant at his suspicion that she fled from him and joined the attendants of Diana. She was afterwards reconciled to Cephalus, and gave him two presents which she had received from Diana. These were, a dog that was always sure of its prey, and an arrow which never missed its aim, and returned immediately to the hand of the owner. Cephalus was extremely fond of hunting, and when fatigued, he often rested in the shade and invited the presence of “Aura,” or the refreshing breeze. This word was mistaken for the name of a nymph by some persons who carried the tale to Procris. Being jealous in her turn, she determined to watch, and discover her rival. When Cephalus returned from hunting, Procris concealed herself in the grove; she started upon hearing the name Aura, and caused a rustling among the leaves. Cephalus immediately threw his unerring dart, which returned to his hand stained with the blood of his beloved wife. He hastened to the spot, but it was too late, and Procris expired in his arms, acknowledging she had fallen a victim to her own groundless jealousy.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> To whom was Aurora married?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She chose for her husband Tithonus [Titho′nus], the son of Laomedon [Laom′edon], king of Troy. This prince was endowed with wonderful beauty; but when Aurora begged of Jove that he might be exempted from death, she forgot to ask at the same time for the bloom of immortal youth. When Tithonus became old and decrepit, Aurora still watched over him with the tenderest care,
            <quote>“giving him ambrosial food and fair garments.”</quote> When Tithonus could no longer move his aged limbs, and his feeble voice was scarcely heard, the goddess was moved with compassion, and changed him into a grasshopper.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Memnon?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was king of the Ethiopians, and son of Tithonus and Aurora. When Troy was besieged, Memnon came with an army to aid the kindred of his father. In the first engagements he slew Antilochus [Antil′ochus], the son of Nestor, and threw the whole army of the Greeks into disorder. Achilles [Achil′les], however, appeared on the field, and changed the fortune of the day. The Trojans were routed in their turn, and Memnon fell by the hand of the Grecian hero. Aurora watched the combat from the heavens, and when she saw Memnon fall she directed the winds to convey his body to the banks of the river Æsopus [Æso′pus] in Paphlagonia. Here they raised his tomb in a sacred grove, and his obsequies were celebrated with solemn pomp. The sparks, as they rose from the funeral pyre, were changed into birds, which divided into two flocks, and fought together until they fell into the flames and were consumed. According to the poets, Aurora was never consoled for the loss of her son; she mourns unceasingly, and the drops which sparkle in the morning on the grass and flowers are the tears which the goddess continues to shed during the long hours of night. Ancient history mentions many persons of the name of Memnon, particularly a general who distinguished himself in Persia against Alexander the Great. The Memnon of fable was in all probability an Egyptian, and not an Ethiopian king. His statue is still an object of curiosity to travellers.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Where is this statue, and for what is it remarkable?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It is one of two colossal figures which are directly opposite the great temple of Luxor. They are called by the Arabs, Shama and Dama. The statue of Memnon is the more northerly of the two, and was formerly celebrated for its vocal powers.</p>
          <p>It is commonly asserted by ancient writers that when the first rays of the rising sun fell upon this statue, it acknowledged the presence of Aurora, and uttered a sound like the sudden breaking of a harp-string. By some, it was compared to a blow struck on hollow brass.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Was there any foundation for such a belief?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It appeared quite certain that the sounds of which we have spoken, were really heard from this statue at sunrise; the only question is as to the means by which they were produced. The Colossus, although in a sitting posture, measures fifty-two feet in height, and the throne on which it rests is thirty feet long and eighteen broad. These dimensions were sufficient to admit of any internal machinery that might be required to produce the mysterious sounds. Such was the supposition of the Persian king Cambyses, who had the statue cleft asunder from the head to the middle of the body, but without discovering anything.
            <author key="Humboldt">Humboldt</author> conjectured that the sound might be attributed to the nature of the stone, or to the action of the sun’s rays upon the air confined in the cavities of the statue. A much more reasonable solution of the mystery has been furnished by Mr.
            <author key="Wilkinson W. C.">Wilkinson</author>, an intelligent English traveller. He discovered in the lap of the statue a stone, which, on being struck, emits a metallic sound. There is a hollow space hewn in the block behind this stone, sufficiently large to admit of a person lying within it, entirely concealed from observation. Mr.
            <author key="Wilkinson W. C.">Wilkinson</author> tried the experiment, and was convinced that he had discovered the secret of this famous statue.</p>
          <p>The face of the Memnon, like that of the Sphinx, has been mutilated by the Arabs; the positions of the figures which are yet uninjured show that the whole must have presented a beautiful and imposing appearance. The base of the throne is covered with ancient inscriptions in Greek and Latin, commemorating the visits of different illustrious persons, and testifying that they had heard the mysterious voice of Memnon.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XII. <lb/>Terrestrial Gods.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Terrestrial Gods — Saturn — His Parentage — How represented — His History — The Golden Age — Sacrifices offered to Saturn — The Saturnalia — Modern Carnival — Janus — Contradictory Accounts of his Origin — Temple of Janus — Quirinus at Rome.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Saturn.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Saturn?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Cœlum and Terra. He was married to Ops, or Rhea, and was the father of Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto. As we have already learned, Saturn devoured the rest of his male children.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is he represented?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Saturn is represented as an old man armed with a scythe, which signifies that time mows down everything in its course; and he holds in his hands an infant which he is about to devour, because time destroys all that it brings forth.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How did Saturn lose his kingdom?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was deposed by Jupiter, and was obliged to take refuge in Italy, where he taught the people the arts of civilized life. Janus, king of Italy, made Saturn partner of his kingdom, and that part of the country was called Latium, from a Latin word which meant to hide; it was sometimes also called Saturnia. Saturn’s government was so wise and beneficial that his reign was called the Golden Age. The poets tell us that all men then lived on a perfect equality, property was held in common, and the earth brought forth its fruits without labor.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What sacrifices were offered to Saturn?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was worshipped with human sacrifices, which seems strange when we consider that he was so mild a king. The planet Saturn was supposed by the ancients to exercise a malignant influence.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the Saturnalia?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were solemnities instituted by Tullus Hostilius, king of Rome. In early times the festival lasted one day, but after Julius Cæsar, it was prolonged to three, four, or five days.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How were these days observed?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were a season of general rejoicing; the Senate did not sit, schools gave holidays, and friends sent presents to one another. It was unlawful to proclaim war or execute criminals during this festival. Servants might, at this time, say what they pleased to their masters, who could not take offence; also, in memory of the freedom and equality enjoyed in Saturn’s reign, they sat at table while their masters served, and reproved the latter freely if they were guilty of any awkwardness. Lastly, servants and common people were allowed to wear purple cloaks, a distinction reserved at other times to the patricians. The Saturnalia is probably represented in some degree by the modern Carnival. Saturn is thought by some persons to have been the same as Noah.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Janus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Janus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was an ancient Italian deity, of whose origin very contradictory accounts are given. He was supposed to have reigned in Italy in the time of Saturn, and to have associated that god with him in the kingdom. He was generally represented with two faces, and was called hence, Janus Bifrons. He had many temples in Rome. The gates of the chief temple, that of Janus Quirinus, were always open in time of war, and closed when the Romans were at peace. It is a remarkable circumstance that the gates of Janus were closed but three times in seven hundred years. They were shut for the first time in the reign of Numa; again, after the first Punic war; and Augustus closed the temple the third time when he had given peace to the world. This occurred just before the coming of our Lord. The first month of the year is named from Janus.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XIII. <lb/>Vulcan — Hephæstus.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Vulcan — Hephæstus — Parentage of this God — Why banished from Heaven — Occupation of Vulcan — His Most Celebrated Works — Marriage with Venus — The Cyclops — Vulcania — Temple on Mount Etna — Cacus — Cæculus — Other Works of Vulcan.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Vulcan?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, but was cast down from heaven on account of his deformed appearance. He landed in Lemnos, but broke his leg in the fall, and remained lame ever afterwards.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was Vulcan represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a smith standing by an anvil with tools in his hand.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was his occupation?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He had a blacksmith shop in Lemnos, where he manufactured Jupiter’s thunderbolts, and the arms of the other gods. Vulcan was the god of fire, and the patron of blacksmiths and armorers.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the most celebrated works of Vulcan?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The armor of Achilles and of Æneas [Æne′as], the beautiful necklace of Hermione, the crown of Ariadne, and the brazen palace of the sun. The shield of Achilles was enamelled with metals of various colors, and embossed with beautiful historical designs.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> To whom was Vulcan married?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Vulcan was married to Venus, but that goddess behaved treacherously towards him and attached herself to Mars.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the servants of Vulcan?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The attendants of Vulcan were called Cyclops, because they had each one eye in the middle of the forehead; they were the offspring of Neptune and Amphitrite [Amphitri′te].</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was Vulcan worshipped?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The Romans celebrated feasts in his honor called Vulcania. At these they sacrificed animals by throwing them into the fire to be burned to death. The Athenians also kept feasts of Vulcan, and there was in Sicily, upon Mount Etna, a famous temple dedicated to him.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was peculiar about this temple?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The approach to it was guarded by dogs, whose scent was so keen that they could discover whether the persons coming to the temple were virtuous or wicked. To the servants of Vulcan might be added Cacus, who stole the oxen of Hercules; and the robber Cæculus [Cæ′culus], from whom the noble Roman family of the Cæcilii derived their name. He was the founder of the city of Præneste. One fable is, that certain shepherds found Cæculus, when an infant, lying unhurt in a glowing fire, from which circumstance he was supposed to be the son of Vulcan. The shepherd, Polyphemus, resembled the Cyclops, and was, like them, a son of Neptune. The monster devoured several of the companions of Ulysses, but the hero, having made him drunk with wine, put out his single eye with a firebrand and escaped. He embarked in haste, pursued by the monster; his companions shouted defiance as they weighed anchor, and the blind Cyclops, directed by the sound of their voices, hurled a rock into the sea, by which their vessel was almost swamped. Warned by this danger, they rowed silently until they reached the open sea. Some writers have imagined that the Cyclops were a race of miners, who, descending into the deep recesses of the earth, and coming forth again, had a lamp attached to their foreheads, to give them light. This, at a distance, would appear like a large, flaming eye, and might give rise to the fable of one-eyed monsters. This explanation is, however, far fetched and improbable.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Can you name any works of Vulcan, beside those already mentioned?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Yes, he made for Alcinoüs, king of the Phæacians, gold and silver dogs which guarded his house. To Minos, king of Crete, he gave the brazen man Talus, who passed around the island three times every day, to guard it from invasion. For himself, Vulcan formed golden handmaidens, whom he endowed with reason and speech.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XIV.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Æolus — Supposed origin of the Fable — Momus — His Parentage — Criticisms passed on other Divinities — His Banishment from Olympus.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Æolus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Æolus [Æ′olus]?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the god of the winds; he could imprison them in a dark cave, or, by setting them free, create tempests.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the origin of this fable?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It is believed that Æolus was a skillful astronomer who dwelt in a volcanic island. By noticing the clouds of smoke, and how they rose, he was enabled to foretell storms a long time before they happened; hence the ignorant believed that he could bring high winds and tempests whenever he pleased.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Momus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Momus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Night and Sleep; the name Momus signifies a jester. His occupation was to criticise the other gods, and censure their actions.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Give an example?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Neptune, Vulcan, and Minerva contended for the prize of skill; Neptune made a bull, Minerva a house, and Vulcan a man. Momus was called upon to decide their merits, but he blamed them all. He said that Neptune was imprudent in not placing the bull’s horns in his forehead, before his eyes, that he might give a stronger and surer blow. He found fault with Minerva’s house, because it was immovable and could not be carried away if it were placed among bad neighbors. He said that Vulcan was the worst of all, because he did not put a window in the man’s breast so that his thoughts might be seen. No god could escape the censure of Momus. When he could find nothing to criticise in the person of Venus, he complained of the noise made by her golden sandals. Momus was at length driven from Olympus.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XV. <lb/>Terrestrial Goddesses. <lb/>Vesta — Hestia.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Terrestrial Goddesses — Vesta — Hestia — Her Parentage and Attributes — How represented — Worship of Vesta at Rome — Vestal Virgins — Their Obligations and Privileges — Anecdote.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Vesta?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops or Rhea, and was, therefore, the sister of Jupiter. She was considered the guardian of homes and firesides, and was a household divinity. Statues of Vesta were placed by the Romans at the entrance of their houses; hence the word vestibule, which we still use.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Vesta usually represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As seated on the ground, and leaning upon a drum, while various domestic animals are grouped about her.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the character of this goddess?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was esteemed very holy, and was the patroness of household virtues. When Jupiter asked her to choose whatever gift she would, Vesta desired that she might remain always a virgin, and receive the first oblations in all sacrifices. Fire was the emblem of this goddess, and in her temple, at Rome, a sacred fire was suspended in the air, and watched by the Vestal Virgins. If this fire chanced to be extinguished, all public and private business was suspended until the accident had been expiated.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What laws existed with regard to the Vestal Virgins?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The penalties for neglect of their duties were severe. If the sacred fire was extinguished through their negligence, they were sometimes cruelly punished, and if any Virgin infringed the rule which forbade her to marry, she was buried alive; being shut up in a vault underground, with a lamp, and a little bread, wine, water and oil. The sacred fire of Vesta was watched by these priestesses for nearly eleven centuries. We are told that during this period, twenty Vestals were condemned to death. Of these, seven were permitted to take their own lives, thirteen suffered the terrible punishment we have described. The last execution of this kind took place in the reign of the emperor Domitian.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the privileges of the Vestal Virgins?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> In recompense for these severe laws, the Vestals were treated with extraordinary respect. They had the most honorable seats at games and festivals, and even the consuls and magistrates gave them precedence; their testimony was taken in trials without any form of oath, and if they happened to meet a criminal going to execution, he was immediately pardoned. Public documents of great importance were generally entrusted to their care.</p>
          <p>A striking instance of the respect felt for these Virgins, is related by
            <author key="Anonyme">a Roman historian</author>. Appius Claudius Audax, a consul who had rendered himself obnoxious to the people, was attacked in the midst of a triumphal procession by the plebeian tribunes, who endeavored to pull him from his chariot. His daughter, who was a Vestal Virgin, ascended the triumphal car, and took her place by her father’s side. The tumult immediately subsided, and the procession proceeded quietly to the capital.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How many Vestal Virgins were there?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The number has been variously stated. Some authors mention six, others seven, as the number actually in office. They were chosen between the ages of six and ten; for ten years they were employed in learning their duty; they remained in office for ten, and ten other years were employed in instructing the novices. If there were seven Vestals always in office, the entire number must have been twenty-one. The thirty years being ended, the Vestals returned to their families. The law then permitted them to marry, but it was considered discreditable to do so.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XVI. <lb/>Cybele.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Cybele — How called by the Greeks — Parentage and Attributes — How represented — Temple of Cybele on Mount Dindymus — Sacred Image — Festival of Megalesia — Galle and Corybantes — Bona Dea — Story of the Vestal Claudia.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Cybele?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> This goddess, sometimes called by the Greeks, Rhea, and by the Latins, Ops, is considered to be a personification of the earth. She is goddess, not of cities only, but of all things which the earth contains. She was the daughter of Cœlum, and the wife of Saturn.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was Cybele represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Generally as riding in a chariot, drawn by lions. She wears a turreted crown, and is clothed in a many-colored mantle, on which are represented the figures of various animals. In her right hand she holds a sceptre, and in her left, a key. This last emblem seems to signify that the earth locks up her treasures in the winter season. Cybele is always represented with the dignified and matronly air which distinguishes Juno and Ceres.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was she worshipped?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Sacrifices were first offered to this goddess in Phrygia and Lydia. Her temples were generally built on the summits of mountains; that on Mount Dindymus near Pessinus [Pessi′nus], in Galatia, was particularly celebrated. Her statue in this temple was simply a large aerolite which had fallen in the vicinity, and was regarded by the people as the heaven-sent image of their great goddess. At the close of the second Punic war, the Romans, directed, it is said, by the <title>Sibylline books</title>, sent an embassy to Attalus, king of Pergamus, requesting that he would permit the so-called image to be removed to Rome. The monarch consented, and the sacred stone was carried in triumph to the Italian capital. There it was placed in a stately temple built for the purpose, and a solemn festival, called Megalesia, was celebrated annually, in honor of Cybele. During these solemnities, priests called Galli and Corybantes ran about like madmen, with cries and howlings, making, at the same time, a terrific noise with the clashing of cymbals, the sound of pipes and other instruments. In their frenzy, they cut their flesh with knives, and performed many other extravagances, but the people regarded them with reverence, as they were believed, while in this state, to possess the gift of prophecy.</p>
          <p>The divinity worshipped by the Roman women under the name of Bona Dea, or Good Goddess, is believed to be the same as Cybele.</p>
          <p>Ancient writers relate an extraordinary incident connected with the arrival of the image of Cybele in Rome. The ship which bore the sacred stone was stranded on a shoal in the Tiber. Claudia, a Vestal Virgin who was suspected of having violated her vow, attached her girdle to the prow, and drew the ship safely into port. Her innocence was established by this prodigy.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XVII. <lb/>Ceres — Demeter.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Ceres — Demeter — Parentage and Attributes — How represented — Story of Proserpine — Eleusinian Mysteries — Rites practiced — Story of Triptolemus — Sacrifices offered to Ceres — Feasts called Ambarvalia — Described by Virgil.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Ceres?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as the goddess of fruits and corn. It is supposed that she first invented and taught the art of tilling the earth, and sowing wheat and other grains, so that men ate wholesome bread, where before they had lived on roots and acorns.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Ceres represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a beautiful and majestic woman, with golden hair, and crowned with ears of wheat; in her right hand she holds poppies and ears of corn, and in her left, a flaming torch.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Explain these emblems.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The hair of Ceres is golden, to represent the color of ripe corn; she holds a lighted torch, because when her daughter Proserpine was stolen by Pluto, Ceres kindled a torch from the flames of Mount Etna, to light her on her search throughout the world. She holds a poppy, because when she was so grieved that she could neither rest nor sleep, Jupiter gave her a poppy to eat.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the story of Proserpine (Persephone [Perse′phone]).</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> None of the goddesses were willing to marry Pluto, or share his gloomy kingdom. He determined, nevertheless, to obtain a wife, even if he had to do so by violence. Proserpine, the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, was gathering daffodils with her companions in the plains of Enna, when Pluto suddenly appeared among them in a chariot drawn by black horses. As the maidens fled in terror, he seized Proserpine, and striking the waters of the fountain Cyane [Cy′ane] with his trident, he opened a passage, through which he descended with his prize. Ceres, ignorant of what had occurred, wandered through the world in search of her daughter. At length, arriving at the fountain of Cyane, she perceived the girdle of Proserpine still floating on its waters; and the nymph Arethusa informed her of what had taken place. Ceres repaired immediately to Olympus, where she made her complaint to Jupiter, and demanded that Pluto should restore her daughter. Jupiter promised to grant her request, in case Proserpine should not have tasted food in the infernal regions. Ceres descended thither, and Proserpine prepared joyfully to accompany her mother, when Ascalaphus [Ascal′aphus] reported that he had seen her eat some seeds of pomegranate. The hopes of Ceres were thus destroyed, but Proserpine was so indignant at the treachery of Ascalaphus, that she changed him immediately into an owl. Jupiter endeavored to appease the resentment of Ceres by permitting Proserpine to divide the year, spending six months with her mother on earth, the other six with Pluto in the infernal regions.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the most famous solemnities instituted in honor of Ceres?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The Eleusian or Eleusinian Mysteries. They were named from Eleusis, a town in Greece where they were celebrated.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What rites were practiced during these mysteries?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> We cannot tell with any certainty. The penalty of death was decreed against any one who should betray the secret, or even witness the ceremonies without having been regularly initiated. Disclosures were made, however, which seem to prove that the person to be initiated was first introduced into a dark subterranean cave, where he was terrified with the most fearful sights and sounds. After this, if his courage did not fail, he was suddenly introduced into a lovely garden, and the ceremonies concluded with feasting and dancing.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were admitted to these rites?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Athenians only; but Hercules, to whom no one dared refuse anything, was initiated, and after him, other distinguished foreigners were admitted to what were called the Lesser Mysteries. The Athenians were eager to be admitted to these rites, because they believed that the souls of those who had not been initiated were left to wallow in mud and filth in the lower regions.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What do the early Christian writers say of these mysteries?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They speak of them as being almost as immoral as the festivals held in honor of Bacchus.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who is said to have instituted them?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Triptolemus [Triptol′emus], the foster-child of Ceres.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the story of Triptolemus.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> When Ceres was seeking Proserpine by sea and land, she was kindly entertained by Celeus, king of Eleusis, in Attica. She rewarded his hospitality by taking care of his young son, whom she nourished during the day with celestial food; but in the night, she covered him with fire. Under this extraordinary treatment, the infant, in a few days, became a beautiful young man. His mother, Meganira, wondered at this, and resolved to discover the cause. She watched Ceres at night, and when she saw her covering Triptolemus with living coals, she cried out in terror, and rushed into the room to save him. Ceres punished her curiosity with death, but she adopted Triptolemus, and sent him through the world to teach mankind the use of corn. He executed the commands of Ceres, and wherever he went, instructed men in sowing, reaping, and other arts of husbandry. Triptolemus is usually represented as a young man, seated in a splendid chariot drawn by flying serpents.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What sacrifices were offered to Ceres?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Young heifers, swine and ears of corn, wine, milk and honey were used in the libations.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the Ambarvalia?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were feasts kept in the beginning of harvest, preparatory to reaping. The animal to be offered in sacrifice, was led around the fields, the husbandmen and country rustics following with shouts and songs. Virgil says of these festivities:</p>
          <quote>
            <l>Let ev’ry swain adore her power divine,</l>
            <l>And milk and honey mix with sparkling wine;</l>
            <l>Let all the choir of clowns attend this show,</l>
            <l>In long procession, shouting as they go;</l>
            <l>Invoking her to bless their yearly stores,</l>
            <l>Inviting plenty to their crowded floors.</l>
            <l>Thus in the spring, and thus in summer’s heat,</l>
            <l>Before the sickles touch the rip’ning wheat,</l>
            <l>On Ceres call; and let the lab’ring hind</l>
            <l>With oaken wreaths his hollow temples bind;</l>
            <l>On Ceres let him call, and Ceres praise,</l>
            <l>With uncouth dances, and with country-lays.</l>
            <bibl><title>Georg. I</title>.</bibl>
          </quote>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XVIII. <lb/>Themis — Astræa — Nemesis.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Themis — Origin and Attributes — Astræa changed into the Constellation Virgo — Erigone — Nemesis — Her Office — Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Themis?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She instructed both gods and men, and was generally considered the goddess of law and justice. Her origin is uncertain; but she is said to have been a Titaness.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Astræa [Astræ′a]?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was also goddess of justice; according to some, she was the daughter of Jupiter and Themis. When the Titans took up arms against Jupiter, Astræa descended to earth, and mingled with the human race. This intercourse was uninterrupted during the Golden Age; in the Silver Age, Astræa dwelt in the mountains, and descended only amid the shades of evening, when she was unseen by men. When the Brazen Age commenced, she fled altogether from the human race, being the last among the Immortals to abandon the earth. Jupiter then changed her into the constellation Virgo, one of the signs of the zodiac. This constellation is represented by the figure of a woman holding scales in one hand, and a sword in the other. The scales have been variously explained, but they are generally supposed to be an emblem of justice. According to some, Erigone [Erigo′ne], a maiden who hung herself in despair, at the death of her father, was changed into the constellation Virgo.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Nemesis [Nem′esis]?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Night, and the goddess of just vengeance. It was her office to follow and punish guilty men. She had wings, but generally went on foot, which signifies that the punishment of crime, although sure, is generally slow.
            <author key="Anonyme">An ancient poet</author> says:</p>
          <quote>
            <l>“Vengeance divine to punish sin moves slow;</l>
            <l>The slower is its pace, the surer is its blow.”</l>
          </quote>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What do you say of the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> This temple was but a short distance from the plain of Marathon. The Persians had brought with them a great block of Parian marble for the trophy which they intended to erect in honor of their expected victory. This marble fell into the hands of the Athenians, and a sculptor, said by some to have been
            <author key="Phidias">Phidias</author>, afterwards carved from it a beautiful statue of Nemesis, which was placed in the temple of Rhamnus. A fragment was found in the ruins of this edifice, which is supposed to be the head of this statue; and has been presented as such to the British Museum.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XIX. <lb/>The Muses.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>The Muses — Their Number, Names and Attributes — Why there are Nine Muses — Punishment or the Daughters of Pierus.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Muses?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne [Mnemo′syne], and were supposed to preside over the liberal arts and sciences.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How many Muses were there?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were nine in number, and each presided over some particular department of literature, art or science. Their names were:</p>
          <p>Calliope [Calli′ope], who was the Muse of epic poetry, she holds in her hand a roll of parchment, or a trumpet.</p>
          <p>Clio presided over history. She holds a half opened scroll.</p>
          <p>Melpomene [Melpo′mene] was the Muse of tragedy. She leans on a club, and holds a tragic mask.</p>
          <p>Euterpe [Euter′pe] was the patroness of music. She holds two flutes.</p>
          <p>Erato [Er′ato] inspired those who wrote of love. She plays on a nine-stringed lyre.</p>
          <p>Terpsichore [Terpsich′ore] presided over choral dance and song. She appears dancing, and holds a seven-stringed lyre.</p>
          <p>Urania [Ura′nia], the Muse of astronomy, holds a globe, and traces mathematical figures with a wand.</p>
          <p>Thalia, the Muse of comedy, holds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a crooked staff.</p>
          <p>Polyhymnia [Polyhym′nia] presided over eloquence. She holds her fore-finger to her lips, or carries a scroll.</p>
          <p>The Muses are sometimes represented as crowned with palms, and seated in the shade of an arbor, playing upon different instruments; or again, as dancing in a circle with joined hands, while Apollo is seated in their midst.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How have some writers accounted for the number of Muses?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They say that in ancient times there were but three Muses. The citizens of Sicyon employed three sculptors to execute statues of these goddesses, promising to choose from among the nine images, those which they should consider the most beautiful. When the statues were finished, they were found to be so skillfully wrought, that it was impossible to make a choice. They were all placed in the temple, and the poet
            <author key="Hésiode">Hesiod</author> afterwards assigned them names and attributes.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What punishment did the Muses inflict on the nine daughters of Pierus, king of Æmathia?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> These maidens challenged the Muses to a contest in music; they were defeated and transformed into magpies by the indignant goddesses. Thamyris [Tham′yris], a musician of Thrace, was struck blind for the same offence.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XX. <lb/>Gods of the Woods, and Rural Deities.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Gods of the Woods, and Rural Deities — Pan — Names given to this Deity — His Origin — How represented — Famous Action related of Pan — Origin of Pan’s Reeds — Satyrs and Fauns — Terminus — Vertumnus — Pales.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Pan.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Pan?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was a woodland deity, and was honored by the Romans as the god of shepherds and the patron of fishing and fowling. The Latins sometimes called him Incubus or the “Nightmare,” and at Rome he was worshipped as Lupercus, or Lynceus. His origin is uncertain, but he is said by some authors to have been a son of Mercury and a nymph of Arcadia.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Pan represented?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As half man, and half goat, having a human head ornamented with horns, and a garland of pine: he holds in one hand a crooked staff, and in the other a pipe of uneven reeds. The music which he made on this rude instrument was so sweet as to cheer the gods.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What famous action is related of Pan?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> When the Gauls, under their King Brennus, made an irruption into Greece, and were about to plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi, Pan suddenly showed himself, and so terrified them that they fled in disorder. Hence it comes that any sudden and unreasonable terror which spreads through an assemblage of persons, particularly an army, is called a panic.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the origin of Pan’s reeds?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> A beautiful nymph, named Syrinx, was so persecuted by this god, that she prayed the water-nymphs to help her, and change her into reeds, which they did. Pan saw the transformation, and was much grieved. He took some of the reeds away for a remembrance. On applying them to his lips, he found they produced the most melodious sounds, so that he formed them into a rustic pipe. Milk and honey were offered to Pan.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Satyrs and Fauns.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were these?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were hideous monsters who dwelt in forests, and were, like Pan, half man and half goat.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Terminus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Terminus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the god of boundaries. His statue was only a square stone, or a painted log of wood. It is probable that the Romans did not suppose Terminus to be a person, but only used the name as another term for justice, which forbids any one to trespass on another’s boundaries.</p>
            <p>Landmarks and boundary stones were considered sacred by the Romans; they were crowned with garlands on festivals, offerings were laid upon them, and it was death for any one to remove one. When Constantine embraced Christianity, and placed the cross on his standard, he replaced these Terminal stones by the Christian emblem, and the custom of erecting wayside crosses, which became afterwards almost universal, is said to date from this epoch.</p>
            <p>Terminus had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. It is said that when Tarquin the Proud wished to build a temple to Jupiter on the spot, the god of boundaries refused to give way.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Vertumnus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was this deity?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He is generally reckoned as one of the rural divinities, and was worshipped as such by the ancient Sabines. The name comes from the Latin word verto, (to turn or change,) and was bestowed upon him in allusion to his power of taking any form he pleased. Vertumnus presided over the seasons; he was the husband of Pomona. Statues of this god were erected in every town of Italy. His festival called Vertumnalia, was kept in October.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXI. <lb/>Goddesses of the Woods.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Goddesses of the Woods — Diana — Parentage and Attributes of this Goddess — How represented — Habits of Diana — Her Attendants — Punishment of Chione — Story of Niobe — Temple of Diana at Ephesus — Burned by Erostratus — Despoiled by Nero — Plundered by the Goths — Nymphs — Naiades — Oreades — Oceanides — Dryades and Hamadryades — Arethusa — Story of Echo — Transformation of Narcissus.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Diana.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Diana?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and the twin-sister of Apollo. This goddess had three names. On earth she was called Diana, and was honored as the goddess of woods and hunting; in heaven she was called Luna, and was identified with the moon, as her brother Apollo was with the sun. In hell, she was called Hecate [Hec′ate], and as spirits were supposed to be subject to her, she was invoked under the latter name in all magical incantations.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the habits of Diana?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She shunned the society of men, and frequented the woods, attended by a train of virgins who had resolved, like her, never to marry.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the attendants of Diana?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Sometimes the Oceanides [Ocean′ides] or daughters of Oceanus; sometimes the woodland nymphs. Diana often led a chorus of the Muses and Graces, and joined them in singing the praises of her mother Latona.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Diana represented?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As a very stately and beautiful woman, dressed in the garb of a huntress; she holds a bow in her hand, and a quiver of arrows is hung across her shoulders. Her feet are covered with buskins, and a bright silver crescent glitters on her forehead. Sometimes she is represented as seated in a silver chariot drawn by hounds.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Chione [Chi′one]?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was a nymph beloved by Apollo. She spoke scornfully of the beauty of Diana, and the goddess, in revenge, pierced her tongue with an arrow.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the story of Niobe [Ni′obe].</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Tantalus [Tan′talus], and the wife of Amphion [Amphi′on], king of Thebes. She was enriched with all the gifts of nature and fortune, and being made insolent by prosperity, she insulted Latona, and refused to offer incense at her shrine. Niobe had seven beautiful sons, and as many lovely daughters, and had boasted of their number as rendering her superior to Latona. The indignant goddess called upon Apollo and Diana to revenge the insult offered to their mother, and humble the haughty Niobe. This they effected by slaying, in one day, all the children of the unhappy queen. Her sons expired by the arrows of Apollo, and her daughters by those of Diana. Amphion killed himself in despair, and the wretched Niobe, widowed and childless, wept without ceasing until the pitying gods changed her into stone. This story has furnished the subject of a very beautiful group of statuary, in which Niobe is represented as vainly endeavoring to shelter, beneath her mantle, the youngest and last of her children.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Where was the most celebrated temple of Diana?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> At Ephesus in Asia Minor; it was so beautiful that it was counted among the seven wonders of the world. Two hundred and twenty years were spent in the building, although an incredible number of workmen were employed. The entire length of the temple was 425 feet, and the breadth 220; the whole was supported by 127 superb columns, each the gift of a king. The statue of the goddess was of ebony, and the most skillful painters and sculptors were employed in the decorations of the edifice.</p>
            <p>A man named Erostratus, who was anxious to make himself famous, by whatever means, set fire to this magnificent building. This event took place on the very day on which Alexander the Great was born.</p>
            <p>The temple was but partially destroyed, and was soon afterwards restored to its former splendor. The inhabitants of Ephesus seem to have been particularly attached to the worship of Diana. We read in the <title>Acts of the Apostles</title> that when they began to make converts in that city, the people were very indignant; in their zeal for their goddess they ran about the streets for the space of about two hours, crying,
              <quote>“Great is Diana of the Ephesians!”</quote></p>
            <p>This temple was despoiled by Nero, who removed many costly offerings and images, together with a large quantity of silver and gold. It was afterwards plundered by the Goths in the reign of Gallienus; and the materials of the building have been since used in the construction of other edifices. The great dome of Santa Sophia, in Constantinople, rests upon pillars of green jasper which were removed from the temple of Diana by order of Justinian.</p>
            <p>Two pillars of the great church of Pisa were also taken from this temple, which has been so completely destroyed that the exact site is not known.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Nymphs.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Nymphs?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were graceful young women who attended on Diana and the greater goddesses. Some, also, had charge of certain fountains and rivers, and were called Naiades [Na′iades]; the nymphs of Ocean were Nereides [Nere′ides] and Oceanides. The Oreades [Ore′ades] were mountain nymphs, and others presided over groves and even single trees.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the woodland nymphs called?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Those who watched over the forests, and always lived among the trees, were called Dryades [Dry′ades], from a Greek word which means an oak; the Hamadryades [Hamadry′ades] were so called because they were attached, each to some particular oak. The Hamadryad was born with the tree, flourished and died with it. This belief lingered for a long time amid the German forests, as also the superstition about water spirits.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the story of Arethusa?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> This nymph was the daughter of Oceanus, and an attendant of Diana. She was admired by the god of the river Alpheus [Alphe′us], but refused to listen to his addresses. As she fled from his presence, he pursued. The terrified nymph had sped through all Arcadia; the shades of evening were gathering, and Alpheus pressed close upon her fainting steps. In this extremity, Arethusa prayed to Diana for relief, and was immediately dissolved into a fountain. Alpheus resumed his watery form, and sought to mingle his current with hers, but Diana opened for her a passage under the sea, and she rose in the island of Ortygia, in Sicily, still followed by the stream of the Alpheus. In proof of this fable, and of the Grecian origin of this famous fount, it was asserted that a cup which fell into the river Alpheus in Greece, rose in the fountain of Arethusa, and that its clear waters were reddened with the blood of the victims slain at the Olympic games.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Echo?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Echo was a nymph, the daughter of Air and Tellus; she was one of Juno’s attendants, but offended that goddess by her talkativeness. She was so far deprived of speech, that she could only repeat the last words of every sentence which she heard. Echo loved the youth Narcissus, and seeing that he despised her affection, she pined away till nothing remained of her but her voice and bones. The latter were changed into stones, but the voice is still heard among rocks and in solitary places, repeating always the last words that are spoken.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the fate of Narcissus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> One legend is that he saw his image reflected in a fountain, and, not perceiving that it was but his own shadow, gazed at it, lost in admiration, until he was changed into the flower that bears his name. According to another version, Narcissus had a twin-sister who resembled him closely in form and feature, and was his constant companion. This sister died young, and Narcissus, deeply lamenting her death, used to go to a neighboring fountain, and try to recall the image of his sister by gazing at his own reflection in the waters.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Were there many rural divinities?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Yes, a great number; but only a few were well known. Among those we may mention Pomona, the goddess of orchards, and Flora, the goddess of flowers. Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures. The Romans celebrated feasts, called Pallia, in her honor. They offered milk, and cakes of millet, that she might drive away the wolves, and prevent diseases among the cattle.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXII. <lb/>Gods of the Sea. <lb/>Neptune — Poseidon.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Gods of the Sea — Neptune — Poseidon — Parentage of the God — How represented — Offices of Neptune — Feasts held at Rome in his Honor — Children of Neptune — Triton — Phorcus or Proteus — Sirens — Ulysses — Orpheus — Scylla and Charybdis — Melicertes — Thetis — Glaucus.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Neptune?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as the god of the sea, and the father of rivers and fountains.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is he represented?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As standing upright in a chariot made of a sea-shell; for a sceptre, he holds a trident, that is, a fork with three barbed tines; he is arrayed in a blue mantle, and is generally accompanied by his queen Amphitrite. Neptune’s chariot is drawn by sea-horses, and his attendants, who swim on either side, are human only to the waist, the body terminating like that of a fish. Whenever Neptune’s chariot moved upon the waters, the sea grew calm, and tempests were appeased.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the offices of Neptune?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He conducted ships safely to port, and presided over horse-races.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Why was he supposed to preside over horses?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> In memory of his contest with Minerva, when he produced a horse by striking on the ground with his trident. Neptune was obliged by Jupiter to aid Apollo in building the walls of Troy.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was Neptune worshipped?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Neptune had an altar in the Circus at Rome where sacrifices were offered, and plays were acted, representing the carrying off of the Sabine women. The solemn games in honor of this god were called Consualia, and were celebrated in the month of March. While these lasted, horses were released from work, and mules were adorned with garlands.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the most remarkable of Neptune’s children?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Triton, and Phorcus or Proteus.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What is told of Phorcus?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was vanquished by Atlas, and drowned in the sea; after which the people worshipped him as a god. There was another Phorcus who had three daughters, concerning whom a remarkable circumstance is related. The sisters had but one eye for their common use; each one wore it in turn, in the middle of her forehead. They were the guardians of the Gorgons, of whom Medusa was one. The hero Perseus, when about to attack Medusa, visited them, and, watching his opportunity, while one of the sisters was handing the eye to the other, he snatched it from her, and left all three in darkness.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> For what was Proteus remarkable?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> For his power of transforming himself instantaneously into any shape he wished.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Triton?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Neptune and Amphitrite, and was his father’s companion and trumpeter. The upper half of his body was like that of a man, but below the waist he resembled a fish; his tail was cleft and crooked, and his hair resembled wild parsley.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What other sea-monsters were celebrated?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The Sirens, also Scylla, and Charybdis.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Sirens?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were monsters who had the faces of women, but the bodies of flying-fish; they dwelt near the promontory of Peloris, or in islands called Sirenusæ, south of Italy. By the magical sweetness of their singing, they allured all who sailed by those coasts; and after they had lulled them into a trance, drowned them in the sea.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was there remarkable in the songs of the Sirens?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They blended the notes of different musical instruments with their voices, and adapted the style and matter of their songs to the inclination of their hearers. They had bold and stirring strains to entice the ambitious, softer melodies for the lovers of pleasure, and with still different notes, they drew on the covetous to their destruction.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Did any escape who passed those coasts?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> History mentions only two; Ulysses [Ulys′ses] and Orpheus [Or′pheus]. The first was warned against the danger by the enchantress Circe; he therefore stopped the ears of his companions with wax, and had himself firmly bound to the mast of the ship, by which means he passed the fatal coasts in safety. Orpheus overcame them in their own art; for he sang the praises of the gods, accompanying himself upon his lyre, and made such divine melody that the music of the Sirens attracted no attention. The Fates had decreed that the Sirens should live until some one who passed by, had listened to their songs unmoved. When they saw themselves overcome by Orpheus, they knew that their hour had come, and flung themselves headlong into the sea, where they were transformed into rocks.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Circe?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was a skillful enchantress. Having poisoned her husband, the king of the Sarmatians, she was obliged to fly into Italy, where she fixed her dwelling on the promontory Circæum. She presented to all travellers an enchanted cup; and after they had drunk, transformed them into wolves, swine or other animals. Ulysses escaped by throwing an herb into the cup, which rendered it powerless; he then rushed upon the sorceress with his sword, and forced her to restore his companions whom she had transformed. After this, Circe entertained Ulysses in a friendly manner.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What did the poets endeavor to teach by the fables of the Sirens’ song, and the cup of Circe?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They wished to signify by the singing of the Sirens, the allurements of vice, and the dangers of listening to its seductions; by the story of Circe, they showed that when men drink of the cup of sensual pleasure, they become soon degraded to the level of the beasts.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Scylla?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The fable relates that she was the daughter of Phorcus, and that she was transformed by the jealousy of Circe, into a frightful monster. Scylla was so much grieved by this transformation, that she cast herself into the sea, where she was changed into a rock, made famous by the many shipwrecks that occurred upon it. Over against this rock is the whirlpool of Charybdis, about which the poets relate a similar fable. They say that Charybdis was a very ravenous woman, who stole Hercules’s oxen. For this theft, Jupiter struck her dead with a thunderbolt, and changed her into the whirlpool which bears her name. The ancients placed Scylla and Charybdis in the straits of Messina. It was considered a great feat to steer successfully between them.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Melicertes?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Athamas, king of Thebes, and of Ino, the daughter of Cadmus and Hermione. Ino offended Juno, and the goddess, in revenge, deprived Athamas of reason. The king, in his frenzy, took the queen and her children for wild beasts, and pursued them through the palace. He killed his son Learchus by dashing him against a wall, but Ino escaped, and threw herself into the sea with Melicertes in her arms. At the intercession of Venus, Neptune endowed them both with immortality. Ino became a sea-goddess under the name of Leucothea, while Melicertes was worshipped as Palæmon. He was supposed to have power in saving vessels from shipwreck, and was, therefore, invoked by mariners. The Romans called him Portunus, and honored him as the god of shores and harbors.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Thetis?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was a sea-goddess, the daughter of Nereus and Doris, and sister of the Nereides. She was endowed with such beauty that Jupiter himself sought her in marriage; but Prometheus, the Titan, prophesied that Thetis would give birth to a son who should be greater than his father. Jupiter thereupon desisted from his suit, and Thetis was betrothed to Peleus, king of Thessaly. Their marriage was celebrated with much pomp, all the deities of Olympus honoring the nuptial rites with their presence. Achilles, the son of Thetis, fulfilled the Titan’s prophecy by his heroic exploits.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXIII. <lb/>Infernal Deities.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Infernal Deities — Pluto — Hades — Parentage of the God — His Kingdom — Representations and Emblems — Dis — Plutus — Hell — Cerberus — Fates — Furies — Judges of the Dead — Punishment inflicted on the Condemned — Giants — Ixion — Sisyphus — Tantalus — The Belides — Salmoneus — Elysium.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Pluto — Hades.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Pluto?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and the brother of Jupiter and Neptune. In the division of his father’s kingdom, the infernal regions were allotted to him, and he is therefore called the king of Hell.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How is Pluto represented?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He is seated on a throne in the midst of clouds and darkness; he wears a crown of ebony, and holds a key in his hand instead of a sceptre.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What does the key signify?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It seems to imply, that when once the dead are received into Pluto’s kingdom, the gates are locked upon them and there is no escape.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What does Pluto’s name signify?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The Greek name Pluto, and the Latin word Dis, signify wealth, because this god is supposed to control the hidden treasures of the earth. The thunder that happens in the night time is attributed to Pluto, and he is often styled the Infernal Jupiter.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Was Pluto the same as Plutus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> No; Plutus was the god of riches, and was supposed to be the son of Jason and Ceres. He is described as being blind and lame, injudicious, and timorous.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What does this mean?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Plutus is blind and injudicious, because he passes over the virtuous to heap riches on the wicked; he is lame because riches come slowly, and timorous, because the rich watch their treasures with great fear and anxiety.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> To whom was Pluto married?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As we have learned before, Pluto was married to Proserpine, daughter of Ceres.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Hell.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was Hell described?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The entrance to the infernal regions was by a wide, dark cave, through which the departed souls were obliged to pass; they next came to a gloomy grove, and a black lake, called Avernus; this was overhung with such poisonous vapors that no birds could fly over it. The ferryman, Charon, was always waiting on the shore to carry the dead to the other side of the lake. The ghosts of those who had not been buried with funeral rites, were obliged to wander for a hundred years by the gloomy waters of Avernus, before Charon could carry them to the other side. This superstition made the ancients very careful about burying their dead.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What do you say of the rivers of Hell?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The Styx was the most remarkable. When any of the gods swore by the Styx, the oath was sacred; if any deity was guilty of breaking such an oath, he was deprived of nectar, and excluded from the table of the gods for a year and nine days. Lethe was also a river of Hell; the name means oblivion; it is so called, because when the dead drank of its waters, they forgot all that had passed upon this earth.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What monster kept the gate of Pluto’s palace?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Cerberus [Cer′berus]; a three-headed dog, whose body was clothed with snakes instead of hair.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Fates — Furies.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Fates?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were three sisters, the daughters of Chaos, who were appointed to watch over the thread of human life. Their names were, Clotho, Lachesis [Lach′esis] and Atropos [At′ropos]; Clotho drew the thread between her fingers; Lachesis turned the wheel, and, at the appointed moment, Atropos cut the thread with her scissors.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Furies?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were three sisters, Alecto [Alecto], Tisiphone [Tisi′phone], and Megæra [Megæ′ra]. They are called by the poets the Daughters of Night; their office was to torment the wicked during life and after death.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How were they represented?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> As hideous women with terrible countenances; they had twining serpents instead of hair, and carried snaky whips and lighted torches in their hands. They were often called by the Greeks Eumenides [Eumen′ides].</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Of what were the Furies an emblem?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Of the evil passions of men, and the remorse which torments the wicked. When the ancients said of a man, that the Furies had taken up their abode with him, they meant that the remembrance of his crimes did not leave him any repose.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Judges of the Dead. <lb/>Punishments inflicted on the Condemned.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Besides Pluto, who were appointed judges of the dead?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Minos, Rhadamanthus and Æacus [Æ′acus]. These were princes, who governed so justly during life, that the fate of the dead was entrusted to them.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What offices were assigned to each?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Rhadamanthus judged the Asiatics, Æacus the Europeans; and when a very difficult case arose it was referred to Minos.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the most famous among the condemned?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The giants whom Jupiter conquered. Typhon was the most enormous; when he was overthrown, Jupiter was obliged to lay the whole Island of Sicily upon him to keep him down. Briareus was another giant, remarkable for having fifty heads and a hundred hands. According to the ancient poets, he is imprisoned under Mount Etna, and whenever he tries to move he causes terrible eruptions of the volcano. Tityus was still more cruelly punished. He was chained to the ground in the infernal regions, and such was his stature, that he covered nine acres. A frightful vulture fed continually upon his liver, which grew as fast as it was consumed, that his punishment might be eternal.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Ixion?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Phlegyas, or, according to some, of Mars. He boasted falsely that he had gained the affections of Juno. For this insolence Jupiter cast him down into hell, where he was fastened to a wheel which revolved continually.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Sisyphus [Sis′yphus]?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was a famous robber who was slain by Theseus. In hell, he was obliged to roll a huge stone up a steep mountain. When it touched the top it rolled down again, so that he was tormented with unceasing toil.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Tantalus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Jupiter. He invited the gods to a feast, at which he served up the flesh of his son Pelops to try their divinity. In hell he is tormented by continual hunger and thirst. He stands up to his lips in a cool fountain, whose waters recede whenever he attempts to drink. Branches laden with tempting fruit hang over him, but they are carried out of reach by a sudden gust of wind whenever he attempts to pluck them.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Belides [Beli′des]?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were fifty maidens, daughters of Danaus [Dan′aus] and grand-daughter of King Belus, from whom they are called. They all murdered their husbands on the wedding night, for which crime they are obliged to draw water from a deep well until they have filled an immense sieve. Their labor is therefore perpetual.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Salmoneus [Salmo′neus]?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Salmoneus was king of Elis, and was cast into hell for imitating Jupiter’s thunder.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What became of the souls of good men?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> After being purified from whatever slight offences they had committed in life, they were conducted to a place abounding in delights, called Elysium. When they had passed many ages in this blissful abode they returned to earth, but before doing so, they drank of the river Lethe, that they might forget the happiness they had enjoyed.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXIV. <lb/>Fabulous Monsters.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Fabulous Monsters — Centaurs — Geryon — Harpies — Briareus — The Chimæra — Explanation of this Fable — The Sphinx — Fabulous History — Statue of the Sphinx in Egypt.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Were there any fabulous monsters besides those of Hell?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Yes, many; the Centaurs, who were half man and half horse; also Geryon, who was king of the three Balearic Islands, now known as Ivica, Minorca and Majorca. For this reason, he was said to have three heads and three bodies, and passed into fable as a monster. He was probably a wicked and cruel prince. There were also the Harpies, which had the faces of women and the bodies of birds.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the Chimæra?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> A fabulous monster, which vomited fire. It had the head and breast of a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a dragon.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was intended by this fable?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Poets thus described a volcano in Lycia, on the summit of which were lions; in the middle was pasture-land frequented by goats; and the lowest part was infested by serpents. Bellerophon made this mountain inhabitable, and was therefore said to have killed the Chimæra. At present anything which is quite imaginary is called a Chimæra.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the Sphinx?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It was a monster with the head and shoulders of a woman, the wings of a bird, and the paws of a lion. She infested the country about Thebes, so that the people, in their distress, went to consult the oracle of Apollo. An answer was given that no remedy could be found until some one should solve the riddle that the Sphinx had proposed, and which she had learned from the Muses. The question was this: “What animal is that which goes on four feet in the morning, on two at noon, and on three in the evening?” The Thebans often met to try their skill, and when they had failed, the Sphinx carried off and devoured one of their number. At length Hæmon, son of Creon, was destroyed by the monster, and the king made a public proclamation, that he would give the throne, with the hand of his sister Jocasta, to that man who should solve the riddle. Œdipus, who was then at Thebes, came forward and answered the Sphinx, that the animal was Man, because when an infant he creeps on all fours; in manhood, he walks on two feet, and when old uses a staff as a third foot. Upon hearing this answer, the Sphinx dashed her head against a rock, and expired.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Why is the story of the Sphinx interesting?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Because there still remains in Egypt an enormous statue of the monster, carved in solid rock. Formerly, little was visible save the head and neck, but the sand which has been gathering around it for so many centuries, is now cleared away. The body is one hundred and twenty-five feet long; and the fore-paws extend about fifty feet more. The face has been much disfigured by the arrows and lances of the Arabs, who are taught by their religion to hold all images of men or animals in detestation.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the Phœnix?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> A fabulous bird of which there never existed more than one at the same time. It excelled all other birds in beauty of plumage, and fed only on frankincense and sweet gums. When the Phœnix had attained the age of five hundred years, it built a funeral pile of odorous wood, on which it was consumed. A new Phœnix also immediately arose from the flames. The first care of the young bird was to collect the ashes of its parent, which it carried, enclosed in myrrh, to the temple of the Sun in Egypt.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXV. <lb/>Household Divinities.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Household Divinities — Penates — Offices and Attributes — Lares — Their Offices — Sacrifices offered to the Goddess Mania — Honors paid to the Lares — Virtues worshipped as Divinities.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Penates — Lares.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the Penates [Pena′tes]?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> This name was given to a certain class of household deities, which were worshipped by the Romans in the penetralia, or innermost part of their dwellings. The greater Penates governed kingdoms and provinces; others presided over cities; and the lesser Penates watched over particular houses and families.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the Lares?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were, according to some, the children of Mercury and the nymph Lara; they were domestic gods, and presided over houses, streets and roads. They warded off danger from without, while the Penates watched over the interior of the dwelling. The spirits of ancestors sometimes watched as Lares, over the fortunes of families. This idea of the spirits of the deceased watching over their descendants, made the Romans wish to bury the dead within, or very near their dwellings. This custom was condemned by the laws of the Twelve Tables. Besides the spirit which watched over the family, each individual was supposed to have his Lar, or familiar genius, who watched over him from his birth. In early times, children were sacrificed to the goddess Mania, who was supposed by some to be the mother of the Lares. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, Junius Brutus abolished this barbarous rite, and substituted little balls of wool, and heads of garlic and poppy, in place of the human heads which had been formerly offered. The ordinary altar of the Lares was the domestic hearth; hogs, sheep and steers were among the sacrifices offered to these divinities, but the first fruits of the season were always laid upon the hearth. No family repast was properly begun, unless some portion of the viands had been first cast into the fire; in the more solemn form of marriage, the bride always threw a piece of money on the hearth, to the Lares of her family, and another on the cross roads, that they might grant her free passage to her husband’s house. The Roman boy, on attaining the age of fifteen, put off his childish dress, and consecrated the golden bulla, which he had worn around his neck from infancy, to the domestic Lares.</p>
            <p>The soldier whose term of service had expired dedicated his arms to these powerful genii; while captives, and slaves restored to freedom, hung up their fetters, in token of gratitude, by the altar of the Lares.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How were the Lares represented?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Variously; sometimes as children, sometimes as young warriors, but always accompanied by a dog.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Virtues Worshipped by the Ancients. <lb/>Vices.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What Virtues were particularly honored as divinities?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The ancients not only worshipped the different Virtues, but the abstract idea of virtue itself was personified as a goddess. The Romans dedicated two temples, one to this divinity, and another, adjoining, to Honor. As the temple of Honor could only be reached by passing through that dedicated to Virtue, the votaries were reminded that it was by walking in her paths, that true honor was to be attained.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the emblems of Truth?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was generally represented as a beautiful and modest virgin, with garments as white as snow. She was the daughter of Time, or Saturn, because Time always brings truth to light.</p>
            <p>Fides, or Fidelity, had a temple near the Capitol, which was said to have been founded by Numa Pompilius. The symbols of this goddess were, a white dog, two hands joined, or sometimes two maidens with joined hands.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What were the emblems of Peace?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Pax, or Peace, was represented as a matron holding ears of corn, and crowned with olives and laurel. Her particular symbol was a caduceus, a white staff anciently borne by ambassadors when sent to treat of peace. A magnificent temple was dedicated to this goddess in the Roman Forum.</p>
            <p>Justice was worshipped by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. Her emblems have been described in the article on the goddess Astræa.</p>
            <p>Hope had a temple at Rome in the herb market. It was destroyed by lightning.</p>
            <p>Misericordia, or Mercy, had an altar at Athens This was a public sanctuary for the unfortunate, and it was unlawful to take any one from it by force. This altar is said to have been erected by the kindred of Hercules, after the death of that hero.</p>
            <p>Pudicitia, or Modesty, had two temples, much frequented by the Roman matrons. The second of these was founded under peculiar circumstances.</p>
            <p>Virginia, the daughter of Aulus, a patrician of high rank, married into a plebeian family. The noble ladies of Rome were so indignant at this alliance, that they would not permit her to enter the temple of Pudicitia, nor to offer sacrifice with them. She desired to repair this public affront by some memorable action. For this purpose, she built, in the Via Longa, a temple similar to that from which she had been expelled, and dedicated it likewise to Pudicitia. Virginia then assembled the plebeian matrons, and exhorted them to honor this Virtue in such a manner, that however the patrician ladies should surpass them in power or rank, they might still excel in modest behavior and purity of life. The two temples were from that time distinguished as Pudicitia Patricia, and Pudicitia Plebeia.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Was Fortune honored as a goddess?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Yes, the ancients worshipped under this name, a certain unseen power which was supposed to exercise a supreme dominion over human affairs. Fortune had many splendid temples in Italy. Servius Tullius dedicated two at Rome; one to Bona Fortuna, the other to Fors Fortuna. This capricious goddess was sometimes represented with her eyes bandaged, her feet winged, and her right hand resting on a wheel. In the temple of Fortune at Thebes, the goddess held Wealth, represented as an infant, in her arms.</p>
            <p>The goddess Salus, or Health, was much honored by the Romans. In ancient times, certain days in the year were set apart for her worship. Her emblems were a bowl and a serpent.</p>
            <p>Liberty was honored as a divinity. Her emblem was the peculiar cap with which we are familiar from the representations on our own coins.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Were not the Vices also honored by the ancients?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It is certain that both the Greeks and Romans erected temples and altars to certain vices, but it does not appear that their intention was to do them honor. In some instances, they strove to propitiate the powers of evil, that they might abstain from doing them harm. When they built a temple at Rome to Febris, or Fever, they undoubtedly wished to appease the demon or malignant deity who was supposed to send this calamity. The same superstition has been remarked among the modern Hindoos, who are said to have dedicated temples to thunder and lightning, earthquake, pestilence, etc. The Vices were always represented in such a manner as to excite abhorrence. We have an instance of this in the altar erected to Calumny at Athens.</p>
            <p>
              <author key="Apelle">Apelles</author> drew an allegorical picture, in which the odious features of this Vice were strikingly portrayed. A man sits in a listening attitude, beckoning Calumny to approach. Two counsellors, Ignorance and Suspicion, stand near him. Calumny is beautiful in form and feature, but has a malignant countenance, and flashing eyes. Envy goes before, while Fraud and Conspiracy accompany her on either side. Repentance follows with woful mien and torn garments. She looks behind her, as if calling upon Truth, who is seen advancing slowly in the distance.</p>
            <p>Discord, Fraud, etc., were represented with appropriate symbols.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXVI. <lb/>Demigods and Heroes.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Demigods and Heroes — Their Origin — Hercules — His Parentage — Twelve Labors of the Hero — Field of Narbonne — Death of Hercules.</p>
          </argument>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the Demigods?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were brave men, who had rendered themselves famous in life by illustrious actions. After their death, their countrymen believed that they were admitted among the gods, and gave them divine honors. The circumstance of a mortal taking his place among the gods, was called an Apotheosis.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was the most famous of the Demigods?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Hercules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Juno hated him on his mother’s account, and resolved upon his destruction. For this purpose she sent two monstrous serpents to kill him as he was sleeping in his cradle. The infant hero awoke, and seizing the serpents in his hands, strangled them both. Juno was not discouraged, and when Hercules was grown up, devised new means to destroy him. She persuaded Jupiter to put Hercules under the authority of Eurystheus [Eurys′theus], king of Mycenæ, who imposed upon the hero twelve Labors, or tasks, of great danger and difficulty. Hercules was in doubt as to whether he should submit to this injustice, and consulted the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The oracle told him that he must obey Eurystheus, which he accordingly did. Hercules had been carefully instructed by the Centaur Chiron, and he was now equipped for his labors by the liberality of the gods. He received a sword from Mercury, a bow from Apollo, a golden breastplate from Vulcan, horses from Neptune, and a robe from Minerva.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the Twelve Labors of Hercules.</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They are briefly as follows:</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">First.</hi> He killed a terrible lion which raged in the Nemean [Nemean] forest. Hercules is usually represented as clothed in the skin of this animal, and leaning on the club which was his ordinary weapon.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Second.</hi> He destroyed the Hydra, a serpent with fifty heads, which lived in the marshes of Lerna, and ravaged the surrounding country.</p>
          <p>Hercules noticed that where he cut off one of the heads of this serpent, two immediately sprang up. He commanded an attendant to burn the wound with a firebrand, and by this means he at length cut off the last head.</p>
          <p>Third. He captured the savage wild boar of Mount Erymanthus, in Arcadia, and brought it bound to Eurystheus. The tyrant was so frightened at the sight of the animal, that he shut himself up in a brazen apartment of his palace.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Fourth.</hi> He caught, after a chase which lasted an entire year, a famous stag which was sacred to Diana. It had golden horns and brazen feet.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Fifth.</hi> He killed, or drove away from Lake Stymphalus [Stympha′lus], certain voracious birds which fed on human flesh.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Sixth.</hi> He defeated the Amazons, and obtained as a spoil, the girdle of their queen, Hippolyte [Hippol′yte].</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Seventh.</hi> Three thousand oxen had been kept thirty years in the stables of Augeas [Au′geas], which had never been cleaned during the entire period. Hercules was required to perform this task, which he effected by turning the course of a river through the stables.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Eighth.</hi> He tamed the wild bull of Crete, and brought him bound to Eurystheus.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ninth.</hi> He overcame Diomedes, tyrant of Thrace, who fed his horses with the flesh of his guests. Hercules caused him, in turn, to serve as food to these same horses.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Tenth.</hi> He overcame Geryon [Ger′yon], who had three heads and three bodies. Hercules brought into Italy the oxen of this monster, which were accustomed to feed on human flesh.</p>
          <p><hi rend="i">Eleventh.</hi> He killed the dragon that watched the golden apple in the garden of the Hesperides, and bore away the precious fruit.</p>
          <p>Twelfth. Hercules descended alive into the infernal regions, and brought from thence the three-headed dog, Cerberus.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Did Hercules perform any other great actions?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> A vast number of exploits are attributed to him. There is a plain near Narbonne, in France, covered with stones. The ancients said that Hercules was contending on this spot with two giants, when, his arrows becoming exhausted, he prayed to Jupiter for aid. The god sent down a shower of great stones, with which Hercules put the giants to flight.</p>
          <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Relate the death of Hercules?</q>
          <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> This hero had slain the Centaur Nessus to revenge an insult offered to his wife, Deianira [Deiani′ra]. When the monster was dying, he gave Deianira a charmed philter, telling her that if Hercules ever gave her cause to doubt his affection, she could secure his constancy by making him wear a garment which had been sprinkled with this potion. The credulous Deianira accepted the philter, which was nothing else but the venom of the hydra which had been infused into the Centaur’s blood; and it was not long before her jealousy led her to use it as she had been directed. Hercules had plundered Œchalia, and carried off, among other captives, the beautiful Iole [I′ole], daughter of the king of that city. The hero, who wished to keep a festival, and to offer sacrifice in honor of his victory, sent for a splendid robe befitting the occasion. Deianira’s jealousy was excited against Iole by the reports of the messenger, and she sent her husband a tunic impregnated with the venom of the hydra. The poison soon began to work, and Hercules endeavored in vain to tear off the tunic, which clung to his flesh and consumed even the marrow of his bones. In his fury he caught the youth who had brought him the garment, by the foot, and hurled him into the sea. He then fled in his agony to the summit of Mount Œta, where he erected a funeral pyre with forest trees which he tore up by the roots. On this he laid the skin of the Nemean lion and his famous club, after which he ascended the pile and directed his followers to set it on fire. All refused except Philoctetes [Philocte′tes], who pitied the sufferings of the dying hero, and obeyed his command. He received the bow and arrows of Hercules as a reward for this service. While the pyre was blazing, Jupiter sent a thunder-cloud, in which Hercules was conveyed to Olympus. Here he was endowed with immortality, and, according to some accounts, was reconciled with Juno, who gave him her daughter Hebe in
            marriage.</p>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXVII.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Jason — Expedition in search of the Golden Fleece — Medea — Her Revenge — Theseus — Tribute imposed on the Athenians — Departure of Theseus — Destruction of the Minotaur — Ariadne — Death of Ægeus.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Jason.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Jason?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Æson, king of Thessaly, and was celebrated on account of his expedition in search of the Golden Fleece. He is also known as the husband of the famous sorceress Medea [Mede′a].</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the Golden Fleece?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Phryxus, son of Athamas, king of Thebes, received from his mother a ram of a golden color, or, according to fable, with a fleece of pure gold. Some time after, Phryxus and his sister Helle, to escape from their step-mother Ino, attempted to cross the sea on this ram. Helle became terrified, and was drowned in the straits which are called from her, Hellespont. Phryxus arrived in safety at Colchis, where he sacrificed the ram to Jupiter, who placed it among the signs of the Zodiac. The fleece was hung in a grove sacred to Mars, where it was guarded by bulls who breathed flame from their nostrils, and also by a sleepless dragon. When Jason demanded his father’s throne, his uncle, who wished to continue in the government, persuaded him to undertake an expedition for the recovery of the Golden Fleece. Jason, with some brave companions, among whom were Hercules, Orpheus, Castor and Pollux, went on board a ship called the Argo, from which circumstance they were called Argonauts [Ar′gonauts]. On arriving at Colchis, they demanded the fleece, which the king, Æetes, promised to Jason on condition that he would tame the wild bulls that guarded it, kill the dragon, sow his teeth in the ground, and afterwards destroy the soldiers who should spring from them. Jason accepted the conditions, but would inevitably have perished, had not Medea, the king’s daughter, saved him by her magical arts. Jason obtained the fleece, and fled by night from Colchis, carrying with him Medea, whom he married, in fulfilment of the engagement which he had made.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What else is related of Medea?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She lived for some time happily with Jason, upon whom she conferred an additional favor by restoring his aged and decrepit father to the vigor and beauty of youth. Jason was ungrateful for these benefits, and divorced Medea in order that he might marry Creusa, the daughter of the king of Corinth.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was Medea’s revenge?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She murdered, in the sight of their father, the two children whom she had borne to Jason, and consumed his palace and bride in a conflagration raised by her art. As Jason was about to rush upon the sorceress, she rose in the air in a flying chariot, and escaped to Athens.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Theseus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Theseus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Ægeus [Æ′geus], king of Athens. The Athenians were obliged to send every year, as tribute to Crete, seven of the noblest of their young men, and as many maidens. These were usually devoured by a horrible monster called Minotaur, whom Minos, the king of Crete, kept in the Labyrinth.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What was the Labyrinth?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> It was a building with fifteen hundred rooms above ground, and as many underneath. These apartments had so many doors, and were connected by such intricate windings, that no one who was conducted a certain distance into the edifice, could find the entrance again.</p>
            <p>Theseus resolved to deliver the Athenians from this dreadful tribute, and when the lots were about being cast for the fourth time, he offered himself as one of the victims. Ægeus strove to dissuade the young hero, but in vain; and the tribute ship departed as usual under black sails, which Theseus promised his father to change for white, in case of his returning victorious.</p>
            <p>When they arrived in Crete, the youths and maidens were exhibited before King Minos; and Ariadne, the daughter of the king, was so much struck by the courage and generosity of Theseus that she resolved to save his life. For this purpose she gave him a ball of thread which she directed him to attach to the entrance of the Labyrinth, and to unwind as he proceeded. Theseus followed her instructions, and when he came to where the Minotaur lay, he slew him, and found his way out by the thread. The whole band then embarked for Athens.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What became of Ariadne?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She accompanied Theseus on his flight, but he was so ungrateful as to abandon her on the island of Naxos, where she had fallen asleep on the shore. Ariadne was afterwards married to Bacchus, who gave her a crown composed of seven stars, the same which we admire in the heavens as the Corona Borealis, or Northern Crown.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Of what negligence was Theseus guilty on his return to Athens?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He forgot his promise to his father with regard to the color of his sails, and Ægeus, who watched every day for his son’s return, saw the black sails in the distance. He believed from this that his son was dead. In his despair he cast himself into the sea, which was called Ægean [Æ′gean] from his name. Theseus, after performing many other wonderful actions, was banished from his country, and died in obscurity.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXVIII.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Castor And Pollux — Their Parentage — Death of Castor — Constellation Gemini — Prometheus — His Parentage — His Impiety — Pandora’s Box — Punishment of Prometheus.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Castor And Pollux.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were Castor and Pollux?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> They were twin brothers, the sons of Jupiter and Leda. Castor was mortal like his mother, and when he died, Pollux grieved so much that Jupiter permitted him to share his immortality with his brother. It was arranged, therefore, that they should live every alternate day.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What Constellation is named from these brothers?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Gemini, or the Twins, the third sign of the Zodiac.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Prometheus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Prometheus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Iapetus and Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He formed a man out of clay, and gave it life by means of fire which he stole from heaven.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> What pretty fable is connected with this?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> The poets tell us that Jupiter was so much displeased at the theft, that he sent Pandora [Pando′ra] to Prometheus with a mysterious box, in which were imprisoned all the evils which have since afflicted the human race. Prometheus, suspecting something wrong, refused to touch the box, upon which Pandora carried it to his brother Epimetheus. He was less cautious, and opening the casket, set free the evils and miseries which flew abroad through the world. When he saw what he had done, he shut the box quickly, and prevented Hope, which was lying at the bottom, from escaping also. This signifies that in the midst of all human miseries, hope yet remains. The fable may have been derived from some ancient tradition of Eve’s curiosity, the fall of man, and the hope left him amid so many misfortunes.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> How was Prometheus punished?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> Jupiter commanded Mercury to chain him to a rock on Mount Caucasus; there an eagle fed on his liver, which was continually renewed. Prometheus had, at one time, rendered Jupiter a service. The king of the gods remembered this, and permitted that after a certain time, Hercules should kill the eagle and set him free.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXIX.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Orpheus — Story of Eurydice — Death of Orpheus — Transformation of Thracian Women into Trees — Arion — Amphion.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Orpheus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Orpheus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Apollo and the Muse Calliope. He played so sweetly on the lyre accompanying the music with his voice, that he tamed wild beasts, stayed the course of rivers, and drew the very trees to gather around him as he sung. Orpheus married the beautiful nymph Eurydice [Eury′dice]; but on the very day of their nuptials she was stung in the foot by a venomous serpent, and died, leaving Orpheus overwhelmed with grief. Trusting to the magic of his lyre, he repaired to the infernal regions. Here,
              <quote>“at the music of his golden shell,”</quote> the wheel of Ixion stopped; Tantalus forgot his thirst; the vulture ceased to prey on the vitals of Tityus; Cerberus fawned at the musician’s feet, Proserpine was melted to tears, and the stern king of Hell was moved to pity. Eurydice was permitted to return to the upper world, but only on condition that Orpheus did not look upon her before they passed the confines of Pluto’s kingdom. Orpheus forgot this in his eagerness, and Eurydice vanished from his sight. In his despair, he now shunned all intercourse with mankind, and retired to woods and solitary grottoes, endeavoring to forget his misfortune in the charms of music. Orpheus was murdered during the orgies of Bacchus, by the Thracian women, who were incensed at the coldness with which he had treated them. After tearing him to pieces, they threw his head into the river Hebrus, and were surprised to hear its murmur, “Eurydice, Eurydice!” as it was carried down the stream to the Ægean Sea. Bacchus was indignant at the cruelty of the Thracian women, and changed them into trees.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Arion.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Arion?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was a famous musician who resided at the court of Periander, king of Corinth. Impelled by a minstrel’s love of wandering, he felt desirous of visiting foreign countries, and departed from Corinth, notwithstanding the earnest solicitations of Periander, who warned him in vain of the danger to which he might be exposed. After some time spent in Italy and Sicily, Arion desired to return to Corinth, and embarked for this purpose at Sarentum, taking with him the riches that he had amassed. During the voyage the mariners agreed among themselves that they would murder Arion, and seize his treasures. The unhappy musician offered in vain to abandon everything to their cupidity, if they would but spare his life. The only favor he could obtain was the choice of a grave. If he desired to be laid on shore under the green turf, they would carry his lifeless body to land, and give it sepulture. If he cared not for this, he must immediately cast himself into the sea. Arion chose the latter alternative, but begged that he might die as became a bard, after having played for the last time upon his lyre, and sung his own death-song. The mariners granted his request, not from pity, but they desired to hear so famous a minstrel; music had charms even for their rude hearts.</p>
            <p>Arion attired himself in festal robes; his mantle was of purple fringed with gold, and his brow was adorned with a golden wreath. He struck his lyre with the ivory wand, and sung a sweet and mournful melody. Then, commending himself to the friendly Nereides, he sprang into the sea. The waves closed above him, and the ship held on its way. The inhabitants of the deep had gathered around as Arion sung, and now, as he was struggling in the waves, a dolphin took him on his back, and carried him safe to shore. Periander received his friend with a cordial welcome, and listened with wonder to the story of his escape. When the ship arrived, he ordered the mariners to be brought before him, and inquired if they knew anything of Arion. They replied confidently that they had left him well and happy at Sarentum. Upon this Arion stepped forth, clothed in gold and purple, and holding his lyre as when he had cast himself into the sea. Overcome with terror, the guilty men confessed their crime, and suffered the punishment they had so well deserved. This event was commemorated by a statue of brass which was consecrated at Tænarus. It represented a man mounted on a dolphin.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Amphion.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Amphion?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Antiope [Anti′ope] and Jupiter. He obtained the kingdom of Thebes, which he governed conjointly with his twin-brother Zethus. Amphion cultivated the art of music; he was instructed by Mercury, who gave him a golden lyre with which he is said to have built the walls of Thebes, causing the stones to move and place themselves in order, as he played. Amphion married Niobe, and became the father of seven sons and as many daughters, who were all slain by Apollo and Diana. He is said to have killed himself in despair. The legend of the building of the walls of Thebes, is probably an allusion to the old Dorian and Æolian custom of erecting the walls of cities with public solemnities, and to the sound of musical instruments.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXX.</head>
          <argument>
            <p>Atlas — His Parentage — Transformed by Perseus into a Mountain — Explanation of the Fable — Pleiades — Hyades — Hesperides — Orion — His Parentage, Exploits and Death — Transformation into a Constellation — Perseus — His Parentage — Rescue of Andromeda — Death of Acrisius.</p>
          </argument>
          <div>
            <head>Atlas.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Atlas?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was a king of Mauritania, the son of the Titan Japetus [Jap′etus], and the nymph Clymene; he was, therefore, brother of Prometheus. He is represented as sustaining the heavens on his shoulders. Atlas had been warned that he would suffer much from a son of Jupiter. When Perseus was returning from the conquest of the Gorgons, he arrived in the dominions of Atlas, of whom he claimed the rites of hospitality, declaring at the same time his divine parentage. The king, remembering the prophecy with regard to Jupiter’s offspring, repulsed him harshly. This conduct brought upon Atlas the calamity which he feared; for Perseus, indignant at so much inhumanity, showed him the head of Medusa, and changed him into the mountain which bears his name.</p>
            <p>The fable, that Atlas sustained the heavens on his shoulders, has been explained by saying he was an astronomer, who observed the motion of the heavenly bodies from the summit of a lofty mountain, to which his name was afterwards given.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who were the children of Atlas?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> By his wife Pelione [Peli′one], he had seven daughters, who were called Pleiades; they were changed into stars, and form the beautiful group which we admire in the constellation Taurus. Atlas had seven other daughters who underwent the same transformation; they were placed in the head of Taurus, and were called by the Greeks, Hyades, from a word which signifies “to rain.”</p>
            <p>The Hesperides, or Western Maidens, were three celebrated nymphs, concerning whose parentage ancient writers are not agreed.
              <author key="Hésiode">Hesiod</author> speaks of them as the daughters of Night, but according to others, they were the offspring of Atlas and Hesperis. At the bridal of Jupiter and Juno, the different deities brought nuptial presents; among these, Juno most admired some branches loaded with golden apples, which were offered by the goddess of the Earth. She begged the Earth to plant them in her gardens, which extended as far as Mount Atlas. The Hesperides were directed to watch these trees, but they proved unfaithful, and frequently plucked the apples for themselves. Juno sent, therefore, a terrible dragon to guard the precious fruit. This monster was the offspring of Typhon, and had a hundred heads, so that it never slept.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Orion.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Orion [Ori′on]?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> His origin is doubtful; according to some writers, he was the son of Neptune and Euryale [Eury′ale]. The accounts given of his exploits and of his death are many and contradictory. According to one legend, Orion was a famous hunter; having boasted that he could subdue the wildest and fiercest animals, the earth was displeased at his presumption, and sent a scorpion to sting him. The hero was changed, after death, into a constellation which is known as the most resplendent group in the winter heavens.</p>
          </div>
          <div>
            <head>Perseus.</head>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Perseus?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> He was the son of Jupiter, and of Danaë, the only daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. This prince had been warned by an oracle that his daughter would have a son, who was destined to deprive him of life. Acrisius resolved, in consequence, that Danaë should never marry. To guard against the possibility of such an event, he imprisoned her in a brazen apartment which he had diligently guarded.</p>
            <p>Jupiter had seen and admired the young princess, and he now found means to visit her by transforming himself into a shower of gold, which we may take for a poetical manner of saying that he bribed the guards. When Acrisius discovered that his precautions had been of no avail, he enclosed Danaë and her infant son in a coffer, which he cast into the sea. The coffer was carried by the waves to the island of Seriphus, where a fisherman named Dictys drew it ashore in his net. He was much surprised at beholding Danaë and the infant Perseus, and brought them immediately to Polydectes, who reigned in that island. Polydectes received the strangers kindly, but when Perseus was grown, he strove to effect his destruction by engaging him in an expedition against the Gorgons. This adventure has been already related, in the article on Minerva. It was followed by the rescue of Andromeda [Androm′eda], which is too remarkable to be omitted.</p>
            <q><hi rend="i">Ques.</hi> Who was Andromeda?</q>
            <p><hi rend="i">Ans.</hi> She was the daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia. Her mother, Cassiopeia, had boasted that she was fairer than Juno and the Nereides. The offended nymphs complained to Neptune, who sent a sea-monster to ravage the dominions of Cepheus. The people, in their distress, had recourse to the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, but the god declared that the country could not be freed from this calamity, unless Andromeda were given up to be devoured by the monster. Cepheus consented to the sacrifice, and his daughter was chained to a rock by the sea-shore, where she was abandoned to her fate.</p>
            <p>Perseus, returning through the air, from his conquest of the Gorgons, saw the unhappy maiden and resolved to rescue her. He asked her hand as his only reward, which Cepheus readily promised.</p>
            <p>When the sea-monster appeared, Perseus showed him the head of Medusa, and changed him into a rock, which was long famous upon that coast. Phineus, who had been betrothed to Andromeda, opposed her marriage with Perseus, and changed the nuptial solemnities into a scene of discord and bloodshed.</p>
            <p>The head of the Gorgon again procured for Perseus an easy victory. He warned his friends to avert their eyes, and displayed the frightful trophy, upon which Phineus and his followers were changed into stone, in the very attitudes in which they fought.</p>
            <p>Polydectes, who had persecuted Danaë in the absence of Perseus, was punished in the same manner. The hero afterwards fulfilled the oracle by killing his grandfather, whom he did not know, by an accidental blow of a quoit.</p>
            <p>Perseus, Andromeda, Cepheus, and Cassiopeia were changed, after death, into the constellations which bear their names.</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          <head>Chapter XXXI.</head>
          <argument>