[C] Arrow schema checks should throw graceful errors instead of crashing from assertions

[aiguofer]

Describe the enhancement requested

We encountered an issue while using ADBC (with Python bindings) due to BigQuery saying that BIGDECIMAL columns have a precision of 77 (the max supported by Arrow is 76). The Java implementation seems to have no issues with this, but the C binding error caused the entire Python application to crash instead of raising an exception. See apache/arrow-adbc#1444.

Ideally, these checks should throw exceptions that can be caught and recovered from.

Component(s)

C