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m200-air-quality-primer.qmd
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---
title: "Introduction to Air Quality: Primer"
format: html
bibliography: air-intro-references.bib
author: "Dhruvil Prajapati"
---
## Introduction
Pollution represents a critical threat to environmental health [@manisalidis2020; @WHO2021; @mananga2023], characterized by the introduction of harmful substances into the environment in quantities that disrupt natural processes and negatively affect living organisms and ecosystems. Among the various forms of pollution, air pollution stands out due to its widespread impact on both health and the environment. Air, primarily composed of nitrogen and oxygen, can become a vehicle for a variety of pollutants—including gases like carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and even hazardous liquids and solids like heavy metals and plastic debris [@Nathanson2024]. These pollutants can have immediate or long-term consequences, compromising air quality, water resources, soil health, and biodiversity, which ultimately jeopardizes the well-being of both ecosystems and human populations.
### What is Air?
Air is essential to our existence, yet we often underestimate its potential to harm us through the pollutants it carries, which can negatively affect health and environmental quality. Composed primarily of about 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, air also contains trace amounts of other gases like carbon dioxide, neon, and hydrogen. Beyond gases, air is filled with tiny particles known as aerosols. These include non-living substances such as dust and soot, as well as living organisms called **bioaerosols**, which can travel long distances through wind, rain, or even a sneeze. Some of these particles fall under the category of particulate matter (PM), PM0.1 PM2.5 and PM10, which are small enough to be inhaled and can significantly impact health. While some aerosols occur naturally, others—like smoke from vehicles and power plants—contribute to air pollution (NASA, 2016).
#### Particulate Matter Size Table
| Name | Aerodynamic Diameter | Abbreviation |
|---------------------------|----------------------------|--------------|
| Coarse Particles | 2.5μm <= x < 10μm | PM<sub>10</sub> |
| Fine Particles | 0.01μm <= x < 2.5μm | PM<sub>2.5</sub> |
| Ultra Fine Particles (UFP)| x < 0.01μm | PM<sub>0.1</sub> |
Since the onset of industrialization and urbanization, human activities have significantly contributed to rising levels of air pollution. Multiple studies [@gallagher2022; @mananga2023] have established a link between anthropogenic activities and particulate matter concentration, which is associated with adverse health effects related to local air pollution. In fact, New York City, one of the most urbanized metropolitan areas, has stated that by 2050, the city aims to reduce GreenHouse Gases (GHG) by 80% compared to 2005 levels. Like many other metropolitan areas, New York City is experiencing ongoing consequences of climate change driven by fossil fuels and GHG. This change has led to increased average temperatures, resulting in more intense heat waves, severe storms, and disturbances to ecological systems. These events contribute to the degradation of air quality, the environment, and human health.
{width="70%"}[^1]
[^1]: Source: [EPA Particulate Matter (PM) Basics](https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics)
### Local scale
However, the effects of air pollution and climate change are not felt equally in New York City; marginalized communities, often subjected to historical injustices like redlining, face heightened vulnerabilities. Redlining originated in the 1930s as a discriminatory practice where neighborhoods, primarily inhabited by Black families and other racial minorities, were marked in red on maps by government agencies and banks to indicate high-risk areas for mortgage lending [@hwajung2022].
The Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) played a pivotal role in this process, assessing neighborhoods based on their perceived creditworthiness. Those deemed "undesirable" were systematically denied access to loans and investment, leading to disinvestment in these communities. The legacy of redlining has resulted in persistent socioeconomic inequalities, including limited access to quality housing, education, and healthcare, which continue to exacerbate vulnerabilities to environmental hazards, such as air pollution [@hwajung2022]. Understanding this historical context is essential for addressing the ongoing impacts of these injustices in cities like New York.
In ‘*The Effects of the Historical Practice of Residential Redlining in the United States on Recent Temporal Trends of Air Pollution Near New York City Schools*,’ the authors delve into the consequences of this discriminatory housing practice [@hwajung2022]. The researchers’ findings reveal that, while there has been a notable decrease in annual average air pollution across New York City, this reduction is not evenly distributed among neighborhoods. Schools located in historically redlined areas have experienced smaller decreases in air pollution compared to those in other neighborhoods. This disparity highlights the enduring impact of past discriminatory practices and underscores the importance of addressing historical inequities to improve air quality outcomes for all communities. Recognizing these differences is crucial in promoting social justice and ensuring equitable access to clean air for all residents, particularly vulnerable populations such as children attending schools near polluted areas.
Moreover, historically redlined neighborhoods and high-poverty areas often have a higher density of transportation routes [@kheirbek2016; @hwajung2022]. These routes are primarily used by trucks powered by fossil fuels, which emit greenhouse gasses, fine particulate matter, and other pollutants. These pollutants can infiltrate the human respiratory system through inhalation. Short-term exposure to air pollution, particularly particulate matter (PM), has been shown to cause respiratory issues such as coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath, along with increased hospitalization rates [@mananga2023] . In contrast, long-term exposure is linked to more severe health problems, including cardiovascular diseases, chronic asthma, and higher mortality rates from cardiovascular conditions \[@debont2022\]. These health impacts disproportionately affect ethnic minorities living in these areas, highlighting the urgent need for targeted interventions to address these environmental injustices and protect vulnerable populations.
### Regional scale
While the challenges of air pollution and historical injustices in New York City are striking, they are reflective of broader trends seen across the United States. Many locations across the U.S. are grappling with devastating hurricanes, wildfires, unprecedented flooding, and droughts. The frequency and intensity of these events are increasing due to climate change [@rahman2022]. As these occurrences become more common, the concentration of particulate matter in the air rises, creating a lasting harmful environment. Researchers and practitioners utilize critical datasets such as the EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory (TRI): [EPA TRI Program](https://www.epa.gov/toxics-release-inventory-tri-program), the Integrated Compliance Information System for Air (ICIS-AIR): [ICIS-AIR](https://www.epa.gov/enviro/icis-air-overview), and the CDC’s PLACES health outcomes dataset ([CDC PLACES](https://www.cdc.gov/places/index.html)). By querying and retrieving data from these sources, users can process the information into usable formats, create visualizations, and conduct analyses, which you will do in subsequent lessons. Additionally, NASA’s Social Vulnerability Index (SVI): [NASA SVI](https://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/set/usgrid-us-social-vulnerability-index-rev01) can be employed to examine socioeconomic patterns across the United States and explore their correlations with public health outcomes.
Across various states, the impacts of climate change manifest in different but equally troubling ways. In California, wildfires and prolonged droughts highlight the intersection of environmental degradation and socioeconomic disparities, particularly affecting low-income agricultural communities in regions like the San Joaquin Valley [@yadav2023]. In Florida, coastal communities face the relentless threat of hurricanes, where storm surges and flooding disproportionately impact marginalized neighborhoods with inadequate infrastructure [@waddell2021]. Meanwhile, in Michigan, industrial pollution and aging infrastructure have led to significant air quality issues, particularly in cities like Flint, where the combined effects of environmental neglect and socioeconomic challenges exacerbate public health risks. These examples illustrate a nationwide pattern: while macro-level data may indicate overall trends, they often obscure the specific struggles of small, vulnerable communities. Elevated asthma rates among children living near industrial zones or the heightened risks faced by families in substandard housing reveal the urgent need for hyperlocal data that captures the unique conditions and needs of these populations. By amplifying these voices, we can better address environmental injustices and foster meaningful change in the ongoing conversation about climate change and public health.
## Global level
While the challenges of air pollution and its associated health impacts are evident in various states across the U.S., they are part of a broader global crisis that affects millions. Air pollution is a significant global threat , affecting both human health and environmental integrity. Responsible for an estimated 4.2 million premature deaths annually [@WHO2021], air pollution doesn’t respect borders or zip codes; its impact ripples across continents and infiltrates our everyday lives. Many people go about their day, often unaware that their cough may be linked to harmful air particles, believing the air they breathe is clean unless an advisory alert is issued.
This lack of awareness extends to the reality that natural disasters occurring far from home or excessive anthropogenic sources can also pollute the air we breathe, illustrating how air pollution transcends local boundaries and affects populations worldwide. In many **low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)**, air pollution poses a particularly acute threat to vulnerable populations. These communities, often located near industrial sites or high-traffic areas, face disproportionate exposure to toxic pollutants that can lead to chronic respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems, and other serious health conditions.
Various natural and human-made sources contribute to air pollution, but anthropogenic emissions have become the primary driver, resulting in complex mixtures of pollutants that can harm human health, ecosystems, and the environment—even with brief exposures. The WHO estimates that children, the elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions are at the greatest risk, highlighting the urgent need for targeted interventions [@WHO2021]. By focusing on the unique needs of these populations, we can develop more effective policies and programs to mitigate the health impacts of air pollution.
The relationship between air pollution and climate change further complicates the public health landscape. Many of the same activities that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions—such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation—also release harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. As climate change intensifies, phenomena like wildfires and heatwaves can worsen air quality, leading to increased respiratory ailments and hospitalizations. The interplay between air quality and climate change necessitates a dual approach to policy-making, where strategies to reduce emissions are integrated with efforts to improve public health outcomes. Addressing these interconnected challenges will require collaboration across various sectors, including health, environment, and transportation.
To effectively combat air pollution on a global scale, a multi-faceted strategy is essential. This strategy should include implementing stricter emissions standards and promoting clean energy solutions. Enhancing public awareness about the health risks associated with air pollution is also crucial. Furthermore, international cooperation is critical, as air quality issues do not adhere to national borders. Pollutants can travel long distances, impacting air quality in regions far from their source.
Data analysis plays a crucial role in understanding the complexities of air pollution and its socio-economic implications. Utilizing resources like NASA's socioeconomic and environmental data available via NASA’s Earthdata portal ([NASA Earthdata](https://earthdata.nasa.gov/)) allows researchers to compare relationships between levels of socioeconomic deprivation and air quality data on particulate matter (PM) across various international administrative areas.
By calculating and visualizing zonal statistics, statistical measures that summarize data values within specified geographic areas, for different countries, researchers can assess PM2.5 concentration levels in relation to socioeconomic factors. This analysis involves extracting relevant zonal statistics, such as mean and median PM2.5 levels, and creating visualizations like choropleth maps, which use color gradients to represent data values across geographic regions, helps highlight air quality disparities. Such studies underscore the importance of examining air quality in the context of socio-economic metrics, ultimately enhancing our understanding of environmental justice issues and informing targeted policy interventions.
Ultimately, recognizing that the health of our populations is intricately linked to the quality of our air is vital for developing sustainable solutions that protect public health and the environment. Air pollution is a multifaceted issue that operates on local, regional, national, and global scales, making it essential to monitor its effects across these levels. Local data empowers communities to tackle specific pollution sources and advocate for cleaner air, while regional assessments help address cross-boundary issues through collaborative policies. National monitoring informs regulatory frameworks and evaluates the effectiveness of air quality standards, while global cooperation is crucial for addressing transboundary pollution and aligning efforts with international climate agreements.
In conclusion, by prioritizing air quality monitoring across these scales, we gain a comprehensive understanding of its impact on health and the environment. This coordinated approach not only enhances public health outcomes but also promotes a sustainable future, ensuring that clean air is a shared right for all communities, regardless of their location. Moreover, the intersection of air pollution and climate change highlights the urgency of conducting rigorous research to inform effective policy responses. Open science research, in particular, plays a critical role in this effort by promoting transparency, collaboration, and accessibility of data. By sharing findings widely, researchers can accelerate the development of innovative solutions and strategies that address both pollution and climate change. Engaging diverse stakeholders in this research process fosters a more inclusive dialogue, ensuring that the voices of affected communities are heard. Ultimately, prioritizing open science in the study of air quality and climate will lead to more effective interventions and a healthier planet for future generations.
## Conclusion
Congratulations! You have now been introduced to the fundamentals of air pollution, its sources, and its impacts on health, the environment, and climate. This lesson explored how air pollution operates on multiple scales—local, regional, and global—and emphasized the importance of understanding its disproportionate effects on vulnerable populations. By learning about particulate matter, historical injustices like redlining, and the role of data in assessing air quality, you have taken the first step toward understanding the complexities of this critical issue.
[Return to Module 2 Main Page to Select a Lesson](https://ciesin-geospatial.github.io/TOPSTSCHOOL-air-quality/#module-2-air-quality-datasets-and-use-cases-cover){.btn .btn-primary .btn role="button"}