diff --git a/src/WorkspaceManager.vala b/src/WorkspaceManager.vala
index 87d115aa9..b3ee12bda 100644
--- a/src/WorkspaceManager.vala
+++ b/src/WorkspaceManager.vala
@@ -1,19 +1,8 @@
-//
-//  Copyright (C) 2014 Tom Beckmann, Rico Tzschichholz
-//
-//  This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
-//  it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
-//  the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
-//  (at your option) any later version.
-//
-//  This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
-//  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
-//  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
-//  GNU General Public License for more details.
-//
-//  You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
-//  along with this program.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
-//
+/*
+ * Copyright 2014 Tom Beckmann, Rico Tzschichholz
+ * Copyright 2025 elementary, Inc. (https://elementary.io)
+ * SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0-or-later
+ */
 
 public class Gala.WorkspaceManager : Object {
     public static void init (WindowManager wm) requires (instance == null) {
@@ -28,20 +17,16 @@ public class Gala.WorkspaceManager : Object {
 
     public WindowManager wm { get; construct; }
 
-    private Gee.LinkedList<Meta.Workspace> workspaces_marked_removed;
     private int remove_freeze_count = 0;
+    private uint check_workspaces_id = 0;
 
     private WorkspaceManager (WindowManager wm) {
         Object (wm: wm);
     }
 
     construct {
-        workspaces_marked_removed = new Gee.LinkedList<Meta.Workspace> ();
-        unowned Meta.Display display = wm.get_display ();
-        unowned Meta.WorkspaceManager manager = display.get_workspace_manager ();
-
-        // There are some empty workspace at startup
-        cleanup ();
+        unowned var display = wm.get_display ();
+        unowned var manager = display.get_workspace_manager ();
 
         manager.override_workspace_layout (Meta.DisplayCorner.TOPLEFT, false, 1, -1);
 
@@ -49,26 +34,10 @@ public class Gala.WorkspaceManager : Object {
             workspace_added (manager, i);
         }
 
-        manager.workspace_switched.connect_after (workspace_switched);
+        manager.workspace_switched.connect_after (queue_check_workspaces);
         manager.workspace_added.connect (workspace_added);
-        manager.workspace_removed.connect_after (workspace_removed);
         display.window_entered_monitor.connect (window_entered_monitor);
         display.window_left_monitor.connect (window_left_monitor);
-
-        // make sure the last workspace has no windows on it
-        if (Utils.get_n_windows (manager.get_workspace_by_index (manager.get_n_workspaces () - 1)) > 0) {
-            append_workspace ();
-        }
-    }
-
-    ~WorkspaceManager () {
-        unowned Meta.Display display = wm.get_display ();
-        unowned Meta.WorkspaceManager manager = display.get_workspace_manager ();
-        manager.workspace_added.disconnect (workspace_added);
-        manager.workspace_switched.disconnect (workspace_switched);
-        manager.workspace_removed.disconnect (workspace_removed);
-        display.window_entered_monitor.disconnect (window_entered_monitor);
-        display.window_left_monitor.disconnect (window_left_monitor);
     }
 
     private void workspace_added (Meta.WorkspaceManager manager, int index) {
@@ -77,203 +46,128 @@ public class Gala.WorkspaceManager : Object {
             return;
         }
 
-        workspace.window_added.connect (queue_window_added);
-        workspace.window_removed.connect (window_removed);
+        workspace.window_added.connect (queue_check_workspaces);
+        workspace.window_removed.connect (queue_check_workspaces);
     }
 
-    private void workspace_removed (Meta.WorkspaceManager manager, int index) {
-        List<Meta.Workspace> existing_workspaces = null;
-        for (int i = 0; i < manager.get_n_workspaces (); i++) {
-            existing_workspaces.append (manager.get_workspace_by_index (i));
-        }
-
-        var it = workspaces_marked_removed.iterator ();
-        while (it.next ()) {
-            var workspace = it.@get ();
-
-            if (existing_workspaces.index (workspace) < 0) {
-                it.remove ();
-            }
+    private void window_entered_monitor (Meta.Display display, int monitor, Meta.Window window) {
+        if (Meta.Prefs.get_workspaces_only_on_primary () && monitor == display.get_primary_monitor ()) {
+            queue_check_workspaces ();
         }
     }
 
-    private void workspace_switched (Meta.WorkspaceManager manager, int from, int to, Meta.MotionDirection direction) {
-        // remove empty workspaces after we switched away from them
-        maybe_remove_workspace (manager.get_workspace_by_index (from), null);
+    private void window_left_monitor (Meta.Display display, int monitor, Meta.Window window) {
+        if (Meta.Prefs.get_workspaces_only_on_primary () && monitor == display.get_primary_monitor ()) {
+            queue_check_workspaces ();
+        }
     }
 
-    private void queue_window_added (Meta.Workspace? workspace, Meta.Window window) {
-        // We get this call very early so we have to queue an idle for ShellClients
-        // that might not have checked the window/got a protocol call yet
-        Idle.add (() => window_added (workspace, window));
+    /**
+     * Temporarily disables removing workspaces when they are empty
+     */
+    public void freeze_remove () {
+        GLib.AtomicInt.inc (ref remove_freeze_count);
     }
 
-    private bool window_added (Meta.Workspace? workspace, Meta.Window window) {
-        if (workspace == null || window.on_all_workspaces) {
-            return Source.REMOVE;
-        }
-
-        unowned Meta.WorkspaceManager manager = workspace.get_display ().get_workspace_manager ();
-        int last_workspace = manager.get_n_workspaces () - 1;
-
-        if ((window.window_type == Meta.WindowType.NORMAL
-            || window.window_type == Meta.WindowType.DIALOG
-            || window.window_type == Meta.WindowType.MODAL_DIALOG)
-            && workspace.index () == last_workspace
-        ) {
-            append_workspace ();
+    /**
+     * Undo the effect of freeze_remove()
+     */
+    public void thaw_remove () {
+        if (GLib.AtomicInt.dec_and_test (ref remove_freeze_count)) {
+            queue_check_workspaces ();
         }
 
-        return Source.REMOVE;
+        assert (remove_freeze_count >= 0);
     }
 
-    private void window_removed (Meta.Workspace? workspace, Meta.Window window) {
-        if (workspace == null || window.on_all_workspaces) {
-            return;
+    private void queue_check_workspaces () {
+        if (check_workspaces_id == 0) {
+            var laters = wm.get_display ().get_compositor ().get_laters ();
+            check_workspaces_id = laters.add (BEFORE_REDRAW, check_workspaces);
         }
+    }
 
-        if (window.window_type != Meta.WindowType.NORMAL
-            && window.window_type != Meta.WindowType.DIALOG
-            && window.window_type != Meta.WindowType.MODAL_DIALOG
-        ) {
-            return;
-        }
+    private bool check_workspaces () {
+        unowned var display = wm.get_display ();
+        unowned var manager = display.get_workspace_manager ();
 
-        // has already been removed
-        if (workspace.index () < 0) {
-            return;
+        if (remove_freeze_count > 0) {
+            return Source.CONTINUE;
         }
 
-        maybe_remove_workspace (workspace, window);
-    }
+        bool[] empty_workspaces = new bool[manager.n_workspaces];
 
-    private void window_entered_monitor (Meta.Display display, int monitor, Meta.Window window) {
-        if (Meta.Prefs.get_workspaces_only_on_primary () && monitor == display.get_primary_monitor ()) {
-            queue_window_added (window.get_workspace (), window);
+        for (int i = 0; i < empty_workspaces.length; i++) {
+            empty_workspaces[i] = true;
         }
-    }
 
-    private void window_left_monitor (Meta.Display display, int monitor, Meta.Window window) {
-        if (Meta.Prefs.get_workspaces_only_on_primary () && monitor == display.get_primary_monitor ()) {
-            window_removed (window.get_workspace (), window);
+        unowned var active_startup_sequences = display.get_startup_notification ().get_sequences ();
+        foreach (var startup_sequence in active_startup_sequences) {
+            var index = startup_sequence.get_workspace ();
+            if (index >= 0 && index < empty_workspaces.length) {
+                empty_workspaces[index] = false;
+            }
         }
-    }
 
-    private void append_workspace () {
-        unowned Meta.Display display = wm.get_display ();
-        unowned Meta.WorkspaceManager manager = display.get_workspace_manager ();
+        unowned var window_actors = display.get_window_actors ();
+        foreach (var actor in window_actors) {
+            var win = actor.meta_window;
 
-        manager.append_new_workspace (false, display.get_current_time ());
-    }
+            if (win == null || win.on_all_workspaces || win.get_workspace () == null) {
+                continue;
+            }
 
-    private void maybe_remove_workspace (Meta.Workspace workspace, Meta.Window? window) {
-        unowned var manager = workspace.get_display ().get_workspace_manager ();
-        var is_active_workspace = workspace == manager.get_active_workspace ();
-        var last_workspace_index = manager.get_n_workspaces () - 1 - workspaces_marked_removed.size;
-
-        // remove it right away if it was the active workspace and it's not the very last
-        // or we are in modal-mode
-        if ((!is_active_workspace || wm.is_modal ())
-            && remove_freeze_count < 1
-            && Utils.get_n_windows (workspace, true, window) == 0
-            && workspace.index () != last_workspace_index
-        ) {
-            queue_remove_workspace (workspace);
-        } else if (is_active_workspace // if window is the second last and empty, make it the last workspace
-            && remove_freeze_count < 1
-            && Utils.get_n_windows (workspace, true, window) == 0
-            && workspace.index () == last_workspace_index - 1
-        ) {
-            queue_remove_workspace (manager.get_workspace_by_index (last_workspace_index));
+            empty_workspaces[win.get_workspace ().index ()] = false;
         }
-    }
 
-    private void queue_remove_workspace (Meta.Workspace workspace) {
-        // workspace has already been removed
-        if (workspace in workspaces_marked_removed) {
-            return;
+        // If we don't have an empty workspace at the end, add one
+        if (!empty_workspaces[empty_workspaces.length - 1]) {
+            manager.append_new_workspace (false, display.get_current_time ());
+            empty_workspaces += true;
         }
 
-        workspaces_marked_removed.add (workspace);
-
-        // We might be here because of a signal emition from the ws machinery (e.g. workspace.window_removed).
-        // Often the function emitting the signal doesn't take a ref on the ws so if we remove it right
-        // away it will be freed. But because the function often accesses it after the singal emition this leads
-        // to warnings and in some cases a crash.
-        Idle.add (() => remove_workspace (workspace));
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Make sure we switch to a different workspace and remove the given one
-     *
-     * @param workspace The workspace to remove
-     */
-    private bool remove_workspace (Meta.Workspace workspace) {
-        unowned Meta.Display display = workspace.get_display ();
-        unowned Meta.WorkspaceManager manager = display.get_workspace_manager ();
-        var time = display.get_current_time ();
-        unowned Meta.Workspace active_workspace = manager.get_active_workspace ();
-
-        if (workspace == active_workspace) {
-            Meta.Workspace? next = null;
-
-            next = workspace.get_neighbor (Meta.MotionDirection.LEFT);
-            // if it's the first one we may have another one to the right
-            if (next == workspace || next == null) {
-                next = workspace.get_neighbor (Meta.MotionDirection.RIGHT);
-            }
+        var last_index = empty_workspaces.length - 1;
 
-            if (next != null) {
-                next.activate (time);
+        int last_empty_index = 0;
+        for (int i = last_index; i >= 0; i--) {
+            if (!empty_workspaces[i]) {
+                last_empty_index = i + 1;
+                break;
             }
         }
 
-        workspace.window_added.disconnect (queue_window_added);
-        workspace.window_removed.disconnect (window_removed);
-
-        manager.remove_workspace (workspace, time);
-
-        return Source.REMOVE;
-    }
+        if (!wm.is_modal ()) {
+            var active_index = manager.get_active_workspace_index ();
+            empty_workspaces[active_index] = false;
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Temporarily disables removing workspaces when they are empty
-     */
-    public void freeze_remove () {
-        GLib.AtomicInt.inc (ref remove_freeze_count);
-    }
+        // Delete empty workspaces except for the last one; do it from the end
+        // to avoid index changes
+        for (int i = last_index; i >= 0; i--) {
+            if (!empty_workspaces[i] || i == last_empty_index) {
+                continue;
+            }
 
-    /**
-     * Undo the effect of freeze_remove()
-     */
-    public void thaw_remove () {
-        if (GLib.AtomicInt.dec_and_test (ref remove_freeze_count)) {
-            cleanup ();
-        }
+            var workspace = manager.get_workspace_by_index (i);
 
-        assert (remove_freeze_count >= 0);
-    }
+            if (workspace == manager.get_active_workspace ()) {
+                Meta.Workspace? next = null;
 
-    /**
-     * If workspaces are dynamic, checks if there are empty workspaces that should
-     * be removed. Particularly useful in conjunction with freeze/thaw_remove to
-     * cleanup after an operation that required stable workspace/window indices
-     */
-    private void cleanup () {
-        unowned Meta.WorkspaceManager manager = wm.get_display ().get_workspace_manager ();
+                next = workspace.get_neighbor (LEFT);
+                // If it's the first one we may have another one to the right
+                if (next == workspace || next == null) {
+                    next = workspace.get_neighbor (RIGHT);
+                }
 
-        bool remove_last = false;
-        foreach (var workspace in manager.get_workspaces ().copy ()) {
-            if (Utils.get_n_windows (workspace, true) != 0) {
-                remove_last = false;
-                continue;
+                if (next != null) {
+                    next.activate (display.get_current_time ());
+                }
             }
 
-            if (workspace.active) {
-                remove_last = true;
-            } else if (workspace.index () != manager.n_workspaces - 1 || remove_last) {
-                remove_workspace (workspace);
-            }
+            manager.remove_workspace (workspace, display.get_current_time ());
         }
+
+        check_workspaces_id = 0;
+        return Source.REMOVE;
     }
 }