Thanks for putting together the options! I think we can carve out a change that's not too complicated in terms of implementation, but yields a good perf gain. Thinking about this more, a few questions:

I think option 3 requires a significant amount of work, since this means we'd need to add synchronization to the whole transactions queue class. What do we get in terms of perf gains? For the error checking, we should be able to re-arrange things to avoid unnecessary synchronization.
checkValid should hopefully be fairly simple to make thread-safe given that we use snapshots now. Also, Cleanup apply and validation flows #4471 refactors checkValid to take AppConnector, which forces us to either run it from the main thread, or implement thread-safe methods. That being said, what benefits do we gain from going the checkValid route vs just signature verification?
Another idea (a bit more involved, but could yield really good benefits): if we're able to do checkValid in the background, what benefits would be gain from flooding valid transactions right away from the background? This would remove the main thread head-of-line blocking issue that txs face right now. Note that we'd need to do something about the flooding schedule: that is, currently we don't eagerly flood right away, but flood in batches on a schedule (via FLOOD_OP_RATE_PER_LEDGER and FLOOD_TX_PERIOD_MS configs ). The periodic flooding is done from the main thread right now. Implementation-wise, this is closer to option 3, since we'd need to synchronize access to the tx queue, but I think this may yield a pretty dramatic improvement to tx flooding.
I agree that some experimentation and understanding of end-to-end latency of transaction processing would be really useful to understand the path forward here.

background overlay: move doing transaction validation in the background before forwarding to tx queue, fast failing invalid transactions #4316

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