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https://iep.utm.edu/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
https://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
https://kumu.io/GOliveira/philosophers-web#philosophers A comprehensive map of all influential relationships in philosophy according to Wikipedia.
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/5827/5827-h/5827-h.htm THE PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY By Bertrand Russell
| . | PREFACE |
| CHAPTER I. | APPEARANCE AND REALITY |
| CHAPTER II. | THE EXISTENCE OF MATTER |
| CHAPTER III. | THE NATURE OF MATTER |
| CHAPTER IV. | IDEALISM |
| CHAPTER V. | KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE AND KNOWLEDGE BY DESCRIPTION |
| CHAPTER VI. | ON INDUCTION |
| CHAPTER VII. | ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES |
| CHAPTER VIII. | HOW A PRIORI KNOWLEDGE IS POSSIBLE |
| CHAPTER IX. | THE WORLD OF UNIVERSALS |
| CHAPTER X. | ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF UNIVERSALS |
| CHAPTER XI. | ON INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE |
| CHAPTER XII. | TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD |
| CHAPTER XIII. | KNOWLEDGE, ERROR, AND PROBABLE OPINION |
| CHAPTER XIV. | THE LIMITS OF PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE |
| CHAPTER XV. | THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY |
| . | BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE |
[!Abstract] ↗ Universe, Self-Awareness, and Intelligence
==Philosophy is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its methods and assumptions.==
Historically, many of the individual sciences, such as physics and psychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include Western, Arabic–Persian, Indian, and Chinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated in Ancient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and revelation. Indian philosophy combines the spiritual problem of how to reach enlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues about right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation.
Major branches of philosophy are epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of correct reasoning and explores how good arguments can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of reality, existence, objects, and properties. Other subfields are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of history, and political philosophy. Within each branch, there are competing schools of philosophy that promote different principles, theories, or methods.
Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include conceptual analysis, reliance on common sense and intuitions, use of thought experiments, analysis of ordinary language, description of experience, and critical questioning. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, mathematics, business, law, and journalism. It provides an interdisciplinary perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications.
🔗 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy outline of philosophy
- Branches of philosophy
- Philosophic traditions by region
- History of philosophy
- Philosophical schools of thought
- Philosophical literature
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[!quote ] Bertrand Russell, History of western philosophy, Introduction :
Philosophy, as I shall understand the word, is something intermediate between theology and science. Like theology, it consists of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has, so far, been unascertainable; but like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or that of revelation. All definite knowledge—so I should contend—belongs to science; all dogma as to what surpasses definite knowledge belongs to theology. But between theology and science there is a No Man's Land, exposed to attack from both sides; this No Man's Land is philosophy. Almost all the questions of most interest to speculative minds are such as science cannot answer, and the confident answers of theologians no longer seem so convincing as they did in former centuries. [...]
To such questions no answer can be found in the laboratory. Theologies have professed to give answers, all too definite; but their very definiteness causes modern minds to view them with suspicion. The studying of these questions, if not the answering of them, is the business of philosophy.
🔗 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy#General_conception
The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.[11] It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.[12]
The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense.[13] For example, Socrates stated that "the unexamined life is not worth living" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence.[14][15] And according to Bertrand Russell, "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."[16]
🔗 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy#Academic_definitions
Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial[17] and are studied in metaphilosophy.[18] Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.[19] Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.[20]
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.[21] Such an approach is pursued by Immanuel Kant, who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?"[22] Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.[23]
Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.[24] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some naturalistic philosophers, such as W. V. O. Quine, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.[25] Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences.[26] This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.[27] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".[28]
Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language.[29] According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts.[30] Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature.[31] A further approach presents philosophy as a linguistic therapy. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of ordinary language.[32]
Phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating essences.[33] They practice a radical suspension of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.[34]
An early approach found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities.[35] This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's well-being by leading a reflective life.[36] For example, the Stoics saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve eudaimonia and flourish in life.[37]
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In philosophy and science, a first principle is a basic proposition or assumption that cannot be deduced from any other proposition or assumption. First principles in philosophy are from first cause attitudes and taught by Aristotelians, and nuanced versions of first principles are referred to as postulates by Kantians.
In mathematics and formal logic, first principles are referred to as axioms or postulates. In physics and other sciences, theoretical work is said to be from first principles, or ab initio, if it starts directly at the level of established science and does not make assumptions such as empirical model and parameter fitting. "First principles thinking" consists of decomposing things down to the fundamental axioms in the given arena, before reasoning up by asking which ones are relevant to the question at hand, then cross referencing conclusions based on chosen axioms and making sure conclusions do not violate any fundamental laws. Physicists include counterintuitive concepts with reiteration.
In philosophy, "first principles" are from first cause attitudes commonly referred to as a priori terms and arguments, which are contrasted to a posteriori terms, reasoning, or arguments, in that the former are simply assumed and exist prior to the reasoning process, and the latter are deduced or inferred after the initial reasoning process. First principles are generally treated in the realm of philosophy known as epistemology but are an important factor in any metaphysical speculation.
In philosophy, "first principles" are often somewhat synonymous with a priori, datum, and axiomatic reasoning.
🔗 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_principle#Ancient_Greek_philosophy
In ancient Greek philosophy, a first principle from which other principles are derived is called an arche[note 1] and later "first principle" or "element". By extension, it may mean "first place", "method of government", "empire, realm", or "authorities".[note 2] The concept of an arche was adapted from the earliest cosmogonies of Hesiod and Orphism, through the physical theories of Pre-Socratic philosophy and Plato before being formalized as a part of metaphysics by Aristotle. Arche,[note 3] sometimes also transcribed as arkhé, is an Ancient Greek word with primary senses "beginning", "origin" or "source of action",[note 4] from the beginning, οr the original argument, "command".[3] The first principle or element corresponds to the "ultimate underlying substance" and "ultimate indemonstrable principle".[4]
Profoundly influenced by Euclid, Descartes was a rationalist who invented the foundationalist system of philosophy. He used the method of doubt, now called Cartesian doubt, to systematically doubt everything he could possibly doubt until he was left with what he saw as purely indubitable truths. Using these self-evident propositions as his axioms, or foundations, he went on to deduce his entire body of knowledge from them. The foundations are also called a priori truths. His most famous proposition is "Je pense, donc je suis" (I think, therefore I am, or Cogito ergo sum), which he indicated in his Discourse on the Method was "the first principle of the philosophy of which I was in search."
Descartes describes the concept of a first principle in the following excerpt from the preface to the Principles of Philosophy (1644):
[!quote] I should have desired, in the first place, to explain in it what philosophy is, by commencing with the most common matters, as, for example, that the word philosophy signifies the study of wisdom, and that by wisdom is to be understood not merely prudence in the management of affairs, but a perfect knowledge of all that man can know, as well for the conduct of his life as for the preservation of his health and the discovery of all the arts, and that knowledge to subserve these ends must necessarily be deduced from first causes; so that in order to study the acquisition of it (which is properly called [284] philosophizing), we must commence with the investigation of those first causes which are called Principles. Now, these principles must possess two conditions: in the first place, they must be so clear and evident that the human mind, when it attentively considers them, cannot doubt their truth; in the second place, the knowledge of other things must be so dependent on them as that though the principles themselves may indeed be known apart from what depends on them, the latter cannot nevertheless be known apart from the former. It will accordingly be necessary thereafter to endeavor so to deduce from those principles the knowledge of the things that depend on them, as that there may be nothing in the whole series of deductions which is not perfectly manifest.
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Causality is an influence by which one event, process, state, or subject (i.e., a cause) contributes to the production of another event, process, state, or object (i.e., an effect) where the cause is at least partly responsible for the effect, and the effect is at least partly dependent on the cause. The cause of something may also be described as the reason behind the event or process.
In general, a process can have multiple causes, which are also said to be causal factors for it, and all lie in its past. An effect can in turn be a cause of, or causal factor for, many other effects, which all lie in its future. Thus, the distinction between cause and effect either follows from or else provides the distinction between past and future. While the former viewpoint is more prevalent in physics, some writers have held that causality is metaphysically prior to notions of time and space. Causality is an abstraction that indicates how the world progresses. As such, it is a basic concept, and one might expect it to be more apt as an explanation of other concepts of progression than as something to be explained by yet more fundamental ideas. The concept is like those of agency and efficacy. For this reason, a leap of intuition may be needed to grasp it. Accordingly, causality is implicit in the structure of ordinary language, as well as explicit in the language of scientific causal notation.
In English studies of Aristotelian philosophy, the word "cause" is used as a specialized technical term, the translation of Aristotle's term αἰτία, by which Aristotle meant "explanation" or "answer to a 'why' question". Aristotle categorized the four types of answers as material, formal, efficient, and final "causes". In this case, the "cause" is the explanans for the explanandum, and failure to recognize that different kinds of "cause" are being considered can lead to futile debate. Of Aristotle's four explanatory modes, the one nearest to the concerns of the present article is the "efficient" one.
David Hume, as part of his opposition to rationalism, argued that pure reason alone cannot prove the reality of efficient causality; instead, he appealed to custom and mental habit, observing that all human knowledge derives solely from experience.
The topic of causality remains a staple in contemporary philosophy.
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[!links] ↗ Western Philosophy & Its History ↗ Chinese Philosophy & Its History ↗ Indian Philosophy & Its History ↗ Arabic-Persian Philosophy & Its History
The history of philosophy is the systematic study of the development of philosophical thought. It focuses on philosophy as rational inquiry based on argumentation, but some theorists also include myth, religious traditions, and proverbial lore.
Western philosophy originated with an inquiry into the fundamental nature of the cosmos in Ancient Greece. Subsequent philosophical developments covered a wide range of topics including the nature of reality and the mind, how people should act, and how to arrive at knowledge. The medieval period was focused more on theology. The Renaissance period saw a renewed interest in Ancient Greek philosophy and the emergence of humanism. The modern period was characterized by an increased focus on how philosophical and scientific knowledge is created. Its new ideas were used during the Enlightenment period to challenge traditional authorities. Influential developments in the 19th and 20th centuries included German idealism, pragmatism, positivism, formal logic, linguistic analysis, phenomenology, existentialism, and postmodernism.
Arabic–Persian philosophy was strongly influenced by Ancient Greek philosophers. It had its peak period during the Islamic Golden Age. One of its key topics was the relation between reason and revelation as two compatible ways of arriving at the truth. Avicenna developed a comprehensive philosophical system that synthesized Islamic faith and Greek philosophy. After the Islamic Golden Age, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned, partly due to Al-Ghazali's critique of philosophy. In the 17th century, Mulla Sadra developed a metaphysical system based on mysticism. Islamic modernism emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries as an attempt to reconcile traditional Islamic doctrines with modernity.
Indian philosophy is characterized by its combined interest in the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the spiritual question of how to reach enlightenment. Its roots are in the religious scriptures known as the Vedas. Subsequent Indian philosophy is often divided into orthodox schools, which are closely associated with the teachings of the Vedas, and heterodox schools, like Buddhism and Jainism. Influential schools based on them include the Hindu schools of Advaita Vedanta and Navya-Nyāya as well as the Buddhist schools of Madhyamaka and Yogācāra. In the modern period, the exchange between Indian and Western thought led various Indian philosophers to develop comprehensive systems. They aimed to unite and harmonize diverse philosophical and religious schools of thought.
Central topics in Chinese philosophy were right social conduct, government, and self-cultivation. In early Chinese philosophy, Confucianism explored moral virtues and how they lead to harmony in society while Daoism focused on the relation between humans and nature. Later developments include the introduction and transformation of Buddhist teachings and the emergence of the schools of Xuanxue and Neo-Confucianism. The modern period in Chinese philosophy was characterized by its encounter with Western philosophy, specifically with Marxism. Other influential traditions in the history of philosophy were Japanese philosophy, Latin American philosophy, and African philosophy.
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首先感谢小破站“npc张青登”团队的这个项目 本人非哲学系，之前读过一点费希特，但太不说人话了，其实主要是翻译的问题，都太老了。然后转头去看谢林也很吃力，于是一直搁置。现在有了这个东西不得不说太方便了，读了几十页目前感觉没有什么太大的问题，甚至可以直接去读德语原文了（不嫌每一句都要翻译麻烦的话），从这点来说，以后限制普罗大众学习哲学的也许只有懒惰了， ai理解概括文本的能力太强了： The outgoing, by nature infinite activity is the objective in the self; the self-reverting activity is nothing else but the striving to intuit oneself in that infinitude. 严谨版本： "本质上具有无限性的外向活动是自我本身的对象；自我回返的活动不过是试图在无限性中直观自身。" 通俗版本： "人总是不断向外探索的无限行为，这就是自我追求的目标；而自我反思的行为，其实就是想在无限中理解自己。" 语法结构分析： 主句结构：两个并列分句通过分号连接 第一分句： 主语：The outgoing, by nature infinite activity（具有自然无限性的外向活动） 系动词：is 表语：the objective in the self（自我中的目标） 第二分句： 主语：the self-reverting activity（自我回返的活动） 系动词：is 表语：nothing else but the striving to intuit oneself in that infinitude（不过是试图在无限中直观自身的努力） 其中"striving to intuit"为动名词短语作表语，"in that infinitude"为介词短语作状语 注：该句使用了哲学文本中常见的抽象表达方式，通过对比"outgoing"（外向）与"self-reverting"（自我回返）的辩证关系，阐述了自我认知的两种基本运动形式。